Abstract

The rapid growth in flexible delivery of open learning and teaching through the use of interactive communication technologies poses significant questions relating to resource allocations, different learning environments, more demanding time constraints and new modes and techniques of communication. Current practice regarding continuing professional development programs indicates that little has been done to provide an appropriate conceptualisation of flexible delivery or open learning, particularly in the distance mode, reflecting sound educational principles and contemporary design elements to maximise learning outcomes using interactive communications technologies. Evidence collected to date indicates that design and delivery of professional development programs, as well as ways of meeting adult learning principles, are different when new interactive communications technologies are applied. This paper will address the issues inherent in this problem, provide examples of ways in which new models are addressing the issues as well as present what appear to be trends in such delivery.

1. Introduction

1.1 Pressures

The 20th Century is closing with a build-up of pressures on every organisation whether it be industry or service oriented. These pressures may be listed as:

• economic (income vs expenditure),
• equity and social justice,
• technological,
• deregulation,
• improved productivity and quality assurance, and
• global competitiveness.
  

All professionals face challenges with regard to continuing professional development, 'lifelong learning', which is crucial for the survival of competitive organisations today. Management, above all, needs to ensure that leadership is displayed in terms of organisational development - that is, change which is concerned with changing mindsets, the development of a learning culture and the continuous renewal of skills. Indeed, continuous professional development, for managers, will be the competitive factor determining success or failure in the global marketplace.

After decades of drifting, managers have recognised their tough task of leading controlling and winning. With global competition there are many more threats. Only the fittest will survive. (Woodcock & Francis, 1989)

This is particularly the case in the Pacific Rim area, including Asia, as well as the European Community, where countries are taking advantage of each others' learnings at an accelerated pace. Traditionally, industrial organisations have operated like machines according to well established mechanistic laws and principles. However, this is rapidly giving way to the organismic concept of operations as indicated in the following table:

Table 1: Machine versus Organism

(Source: Pascale, 1990, cited in Whiteley, 1995.)

The new order of things makes it imperative that the concept of 'the learning organisation' be embraced if companies are to survive.

All of these pressures, of course, require continuous updating of the whole workforce not just professionals, including managers. Therefore, these pressures are as relevant to education and training providers as they are to commercial enterprises of all sizes. For example, due to deregulation of education and training, the growth in numbers of non-government private training providers is increasing exponentially in many countries. The challenge for all providers, whether they be internal to the organisation or external providers tendering for contracts, can be summed up as follows:

• to establish new corporatised operations as public (ie government tax-based) funding is withdrawn,
• to provide 'just-in-time' training,
• to deliver into the workplace or the home,
• to design programs which meet new quality standards,
• to customise training for the particular client, both in terms of the organisation and the individual learner,
• to enter into partnerships to ensure accreditation and articulation towards higher qualifications,
• to achieve economies of scale,
• to employ flexible delivery modes using a range of technologies, and
• to compete in the global market place.
  

1.2 Wide Range of Professional Development Initiatives

Education and training needs of the professions are being highlighted due to several local, national and global pressures, and this applies to every country in the world. For example, new industrial relations legislation comprising enterprise bargaining, new forms of training agendas and competencies, new forms of flexible delivery infrastuctures using information and communication technologies as well as decreasing budgets for government services are putting pressure on all industries and organisations to develop appropriate training programs for their staff and members. The real need is for such training to be delivered to the place of work so that productivity is not seriously interrupted and cost benefits can be realised.

In North America (eg. The National Technological University for the continuing education of engineers, the Health Information Network, Mind Extension University, now Jones Education Company College Connection, and Saskatchewan Teacher Education Network), Europe (e.g., EuroPACE 2000, EuroSTEP, EUROTECNET,) and in various parts of Asia (eg Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, the Indira Gandhi Open University) and Australia (the Open Learning Australia consortium) , flexible distributed learning options, including open/distance methods and the use of communications and information technology, have become the norm for many universities and tertiary colleges, including professional development programs. (Lundin, 1992; Commission of the European Communities, 1991a and b; Daniel, 1996).

Systems of alternative delivery are also operating for professional groups such as engineers, accountants, nurses, teachers (Andrews, 1992; Lundin and others, 1991), public servants, police and the military (Lundin and Donker, 1992).

In the private sector, several companies (eg. mining, banks, airlines, telemmunications, insurance, hotel chains) are putting in place system-wide telecommunications facilities for education and training.

1.3 Characteristics and principles of open learning and flexible delivery

The term 'open' in reference to education and training has become widely used and has led to some confusion about its meaning. Usually, distance learning and the use of technologies for flexible delivery are considered to be important components of an open learning approach. The description of 'open learning' provided in Queensland Access to Higher Education: On the Road to Open Learning (Queensland Board of Advanced Education, 1989) provides a useful introductory description:

Open learning is a philosophy and system whereby all options for post-compulsory education are kept open. This approach is characterised by flexibility in terms of entry, program components, modes of study and points of exit. Learners are encouraged to negotiate learning arrangements to meet their special needs.

The Australian Senate Employment, Education and Training References Committee in its first volume of a report on the inquiry into open learning in Australia (1994) also make a good attempt to clarify the term:

The term 'open learning' means different things to different people and it is not always possible to be sure that those who use the term are talking about the same aspect of education when they employ it. For the Committee, the term 'open' learning implies a freedom and diversity of learning options for the student. Open learning as a concept has been in existence for many years, as the long record of distance education in Queensland attests. But open learning is not simply distance education under another name. Open learning needs to be flexible, student centred and to offer opportunities and choices that structured and conventional delivery of courses may not presently allow at least in higher education - whether on campus or off campus.

The Committee found Professor Richard Johnson's description useful:

Open learning is an approach rather than a system or technique; it is based on the needs of individual learners, not the interests of the teacher or the institution; it gives students as much control as possible over what and when and where and how they learn; it commonly uses the delivery methods of distance education and the facilities of educational technology; it changes the role of teacher from a source of knowledge to a manager of learning and a facilitator (Johnson, 1990, p 4).

All forms of flexible delivery for education and training should remain valid in an open learning approach. That is, the so-called 'traditional' face-to-face option where teachers and learners are in the same location, must continue to be available, particularly when there is a need for some form of special high level of interaction or use of rare or expensive resources. However, various forms of 'face-to-face' human interaction can now be effectively replicated through emerging communications and information technologies. Indeed, every possible subject area and all forms of skills have been successfully taught at a distance through interactive technologies. Further, there are increasing examples in the literature of new, creative techniques and strategies for teaching and learning becoming available through these technologies which are not possible through a face-to-face approach.

Open learning, however, also implies flexibility in policies and delivery 'on-campus' as well as 'off-campus', and therefore the term is seen as a broad approach to increasing access and choice in learning. There is still some debate as to the applicability of an open learning approach in schools, but for university, college and industry training as well as all types of professional development, this approach facilitates flexible delivery to suit the work patterns and professional needs of adult learners.

'Open access' appears to deal more with the ways in which various delivery options can ensure equity of access by students for learning programs. In this sense, it is more akin to distance education than is open learning. In any event, distance learning and the use of communications and information technologies are seen as important elements of open learning by increasing equity through access and choice so that all learners regardless of location or personal circumstances have the opportunity to undertake study across the full possible range of programs.

The Australian Technical and Further Education (TAFE) National Flexible Delivery Working Party (1992: 47-48) has also provided a clear definition and set of principles regarding 'flexible delivery'. With very few editorial changes to incorporate a range of training and development situations, these can be taken as the basis for any approach to open learning and flexible delivery:

Definition

Flexible delivery is an approach to vocational education and training which allows for the adoption of a range of learning strategies in a variety of learning environments to cater for differences in learning styles, learning interests and needs, and variations in learning opportunities.

Flexible delivery is characterised by:

• flexibility in terms of entry, program components, modes of learning and points of exit
• learner control and choice regarding the content, sequence, time, place and method of learning
• appropriate learner support systems
• the application of learning technologies where appropriate
• access to information on courses and services
• access to appropriate learning resources
• flexible assessment processes.
  

Flexible delivery finds expression in many ways including:

• the delivery of learning at a variety of locations including the workplace, the community or neighbourhood and the home
• resource-based learning with tutorial support
• the application of technology to enhance delivery or improve access opportunities
• the extension of educational opportunities through access programs, literacy programs, second and third chance opportunities for obtaining qualifications and bridging courses.
  

Principles

The development of the National Framework is based on the following principles:

1. 1. The delivery of learning should be by the most appropriate method which delivers quality learning while optimising return on investment in education and training by individuals, enterprises and the community.
   
2. 2. Learners should move freely and without prejudice from one sector of learning to another. (Sectors include school, higher education, industry training providers and other public and private providers.)
   
3. 3. Learners should gain recognition for past learning no matter where it occurred provided it is relevant and competence is current.
   
4. 4. Assessment should be based on the achievement of competence and not be dependent on the length of time for which study was undertaken. Delivery methods should ensure that progress is not time-dependent.
   
5. 5. The learning effort should be maximised by high productivity learning techniques, sharing of resource development costs between providers, sharing of people and physical resources between providers, and utilisation of scarce resources and skills across systems.
   
6. 6. Learning provisions should maintain quality standards, facilitate transfer of credit, enhance equity of access to disadvantaged learners and maximise productivity across systems.
   
7. 7. Staff should be supported in the development of new skills relevant to the implementation of new delivery methods.
   
8. 8. On-campus and off-campus students should have equal access to career guidance, counselling services, national and international course information, independent learning resources and tutorial support.
   
9. 9. Access to learning should be optimised through the appropriate and cost-effective use of communication and information technologies.
   
10. 10. Delivery strategies should improve access and participation by all client groups, including disadvantaged groups.
    

The European Union countries also have their various definitions of flexible delivery, flexible learning and distance learning:

Table 2: Definitions of flexible and distance learning in EU countries (EIOL 5, 1991, p. 38)

With regard to adult professionals there are probably four major implications of adopting an open learning and flexible delivery approach:

• all professionals regardless of location or form of isolation can be guaranteed access to a full range of education and training activities from the best expertise and the best learning resources that are available - from anywhere in the world;
  
• professionals can exercise choice in terms of the time, place and pace of the education and training activities as well as ensuring their choices are relevant to their needs;
  
• professionals can initiate their own learning activities by networking with each other and with appropriate expertise, nationally and internationally, to facilitate peer-to-peer learning circles and to assist them with problem solving on an individual basis; and
  
• through the use of flexible delivery technologies, professionals, especially those involved in training programs, will develop skills and knowledge which can also be applied to aspects of other staff development and curriculum delivery in their workplaces and institutions.
  

Several issues arise in the consideration of these implications. For example, 'guaranteed' access also implies that the appropriate technology is conveniently available. Furthermore, access by itself does not necessarily lead to participation. While technology can deliver some aspects of all training and development, face-to-face interaction may still be needed for other aspects, particularly of an inter-personal nature - as much education is.

The main issue, however, is that 'flexible delivery' implies a one-way direction from provider to learner. The interactive technologies, on the other hand, empower professionals to send as well as receive, and theregby initiate professional development networking that goes beyond the unidimentional implication of 'delivery'.

2. Types of Professional Development

The following types of professional development may all benefit from the use of flexible, interactive communications technologies:

• formal award-earning programs offered by universities and colleges;
  
• formal non-award professional development activities characterised by formal programs, and longer schedules often integrated through planned implementation on-the-job;
  
• formal and informal non-award programs, seminars, workshops and conferences provided by professional associations, some of which may articulate to higher education awards;
  
• informal professional development activities which include the various and vicarious learning from others in the profession (visits to other peoples' workplaces, professional networking, peer mentoring, etc.), professional reading, watching television, etc.;
  
• collaborative team development, often workplace-based: they are integrated into and constitute peoples' everyday work but have a professionally enriching quality contributing to development;
  
• reflection on workprocesses and performance, for example action learning/research, conducted systematically or unsystematically, formally or informally; they tend to be unrecorded or rarely made public, yet they are a rich source of professional development for individuals and professional groups.
  
  

3. Technology for flexible delivery

3. 1 Types of technology

Some common concepts and terminology are required to ensure a common understanding of the discussion in this paper. Because this is an emerging field, a variety of terminology is evolving for the same kinds of technology and practices. The following definitions and descriptions are based on examples from the literature and international practice.

Each type of technology or medium has specific attributes which give it its power or effectiveness for certain purposes. Knowledge of these attributes will enable teachers/trainers and course providers to design learning activities with strategies that make the most of these unique attributes.

These attributes are set out to some extent in various publications which explain the advantages and disadvantages of the various technologies, but some brief examples here will clarify the concept at this point. Both film and video possess the attributes of colour and motion, but video has the unique attibute of being able to create a variety of visual effects. If an educational requirement would be live audiovisual interaction plus colour and motion, as for example in assessing competencies in a workplace from a distance, then videoconferencing would be required. Interestingly, for example, in 1984 Parker reported on research which revealed that only eight percent of educational programs required motion. The decision was made at that time by the University of Wisconsin - Extension, therefore, to opt for a slow scan (freeze frame) television service to their 200 study centres where audioteleconferencing services already existed. Many years later, however, it is interesting to note that videoconferencing systems have developed to the point where these can be provided at a reasonable cost to provide a much fuller service.

Another interesting example is that described by Fenwick (1985) of Lincoln Agricultural College in New Zealand. He introduced to his audioconferences an element of competition by having the group of agriculture students at each local study centre a type of grass and, in turn, describe the grass to the others. The centre that could identify the grass first got points, and so on. This is an example of exploiting the attribute of the lack of visual clues for educational purposes.

The term 'technology' has several uses in everyday language. It is frequently used to include the hardware that we design, construct and use - the artefacts of our society. It is also used to describe a class of processes that are algorithmic in nature - techniques for achieving certain outcomes. Frequently, these processes are used to produce artefacts/hardware. A third use is concerned with forms of organisation - networks, business and manufacturing structures that exist to support the production of artefacts and the use of algorithmic processes. These forms of organisation (global corporations, assembly lines, quality circles, etc) only exist because of the artefacts and processes. The three 'forms' of technology are symbiotic in nature, each feeding on and supporting the others.

There are two main categories of communications and information technology:

• distributive - postal services
• broadcast radio
• broadcast television
• narrowcast radio or television
• simulcasting


• interactive - telecommunications-based interactive communications and information technology such as teleconferencing (audio, audiographic and video, both interactive satellite video and compressed videoconferencing),
  
• computer-mediated communication(CMC), both real time (synchronous) and delayed (asynchronous), such as email, bulletin boards, computer-text conferencing, listservers, file transfer, access to databases and so on,
  
• in-house workstation or computer-based Interactive Multimedia (IMM) systems, including laser disk and CD- ROM systems.

'Distributive' implies one way delivery with no immediate interaction between teacher/presenter and learners or among learners. What interaction that may occur is limited and subject to considerable delay at best (eg postal service). 'Interactive' refers to delivery modes which provide for immediate interaction among all participants in various ways, although with computer-mediated communication (CMC) this is usually asynchronous and therefore slightly delayed, but this becomes an advantage of this mode. With IMM, 'interactive' refers to the extent to which the user can engage with the courseware, and the nature of that engagement. These types of technology are classified in this manner because of the implications of each category for design, production, delivery and costs of programs, particularly in terms of pedagogy and support services. The two categories, however, are not mutually exclusive in that various media may be combined, and the same transmission conduits can be used for both general educational and non-educational purposes, as well as for distributive and interactive programs. A new classification may need to be developed because of the convergence of the communication and information technologies.

3.2 Distributive modes

Correspondence education has been found to be a second-best method of teaching for several reasons:

• There is a complete dependence on written correspondence lessons being sent to students by post, which results in a time lag of three to six weeks for the turn-around time for feedback on assignment work, or for requests for books from a library.
• There is little or no opportunity for live interaction between students and lecturers or students and students, except for individual telephone calls often at student expense, (and this is often impossible during daytime in any case), costly vacation/residential schools in some cases, or expensive lecturers' visits to regional centres.
• There is little or no opportunity for students to benefit educationally from live group interaction with their colleagues enrolled in the same subject.
  

Broadcast radio and television have been used for the delivery of both formal and informal education and training for many years around the world. In addition to broadcast, there is narrowcast radio or television which is so called because the transmission is aimed at a specific group of people rather than to the public, in general. There is also the enhancement of providing both radio and television programs simultaneously, presumably to enhance the audio, which is referred to as simulcasting.

3.3 Interactive modes

'Teleconferencing' is a generic term which encompasses all forms of interactive communication using electronic telecommunications between individuals and groups. In the early days of the technology this term included some reference to participants being at a distance from each other, and to a great extent this is still the case in most teleconferences, but geographic distance is no longer a main element or requirement for taking advantage of teleconferencing.

Following are brief descriptions of six types of teleconferencing:

Audioconferencing uses the telephone system for voice-only links between individuals and groups. There are various terms used for this type of teleconferencing such as a 'conference call' and, in the Australian media, a 'telephone hook-up'. The key items of equipment are loudspeaker telephones for hands-free and group participation at any given site and electronic bridges which connect any number of telephone lines together for simultaneous interaction.

Audiographics teleconferencing also uses the telephone system or a very narrow band of telecommunications to transmit graphics and other visual images such as scanned still pictures. It usually combines the graphics transmissions with an audioconference and may even use the same audio bridges for multipoint links. Devices used include facsimiles, writing tablets or telewriters, electronic blackboards and whiteboards, freeze-frame or slow scan video, optical scanners and remote-controlled slide projectors. Recently these functions have been combined into computer-based communication systems, also referred to as 'telematics'.

Computer-text conferencing has been traditionally called 'computer conferencing', but it is usually restricted to text only and in this way it differs from computer-based audiographics and computer-based videoconferencing systems. It uses specialised software which provides several more functions and controls than electronic mail or bulletin boards, but it uses the same technology: that is, microcomputers and modems communicating using a local area network, specialised telecommunications or through the telephone system using a computer to manage the communication. Although some computer-text conferencing software permits synchronous (real time 'chat mode') communication, the difference between this and other forms of teleconferencing is that it is mainly asynchronous and this attribute gives it its power, especially for international conferencing and communication among busy professionals. This form of communication may also be included in computer-mediated communication (CMC) as indicated below.

Interactive satellite television involves one-way satellite delivery of live video with two-way interaction via the telephone system and it has been used widely overseas and in Australia for curriculum delivery and professional development. In fact, aside from print and face-to-face, interactive satellite is the single most used technology for delivery of all levels of education and training in North America and Europe. Some people refer to this as talk-back television rather than a form of teleconferencing.

Analogue videoconferencing is full motion interactive visual and audio communication using television systems such as optical fibre or cable, satellite, microwave, infrared or VHF radio signals to transmit the signals. This is being used between schools in Victoria, the ACT and Queensland at present and commercial television example are common. Bridging more than two sites is usually difficult without very sophisticated switching equipment. The advantage of this form is that high quality video is transmitted.

'Compressed' videoconferencing has evolved as a result of three major developments in recent years. Firstly, the development of codecs (coder-decoders) enable the video signals to be compressed. A codec is computer-like in that it digitises the video input, compresses it and then transmits it via the ISDN network, a special service of the telecommunication carriers using the telephone network. The process allows the video signal to be transmitted along the equivalent of one or two telephone lines (64 kilobits), whereas the normal analogue video which we see at home requires bandwidth equivalent to 1200 telephone lines. Better quality can be achieved by using greater bandwidth which is equivalent to seven telephone lines (384 kilobits) or about 35 telephone lines (2 megabit connections). This compression saves cost and permits considerable flexibility with regard to the place and time for teleconferencing because it is much like a dial-up telephone call. Secondly, videoconferencing bridges now permit several sites to be linked simultaneously, like audioconferences. Finally, it is possible to link all forms of video devices (cameras, vcr, graphics scanners, etc) and computers through the technology.

It is also possible for a two-way or multi-point compressed videoconference to be transmitted via satellite to many receiving sites which can, in turn, interact with the videoconference presenters through the telephone system.

3.4 Computer-meditated communication (CMC)

There are at least five different types of service relevant to education and training, generally, that can be made available through such a system:

• electronic mail (email),
• bulletin boards,
• database/library access,
• computer-text conferencing, and
• file transfer.

Computer-text conferencing and audiographics forms of CMC have been discussed briefly above as forms of teleconferencing.

For organisational communications, email and bulletin boards are effective and inexpensive means of communications. Also, the asynchronous nature of the communication means that busy people can dial-up when it suits them to receive/send messages. In schools, for example, this is particularly important to overcome the timetable and timing problems inherent in synchronous teleconferencing systems. For busy professionals this would appear to be an ideal form of communication for both formal and informal networking.

3.5 Interactive Multimedia (IMM)

IMM courseware incorporates computer-based delivery of information in a range of forms which may include: text, graphic, sound, video (still or full motion), hence the 'multimedia' descriptor. It also usually provides the user with a range of ways of interacting with the material it contains and provides responses to user input in a manner appropriate to that input and the objectives of the material, hence 'interactive'.

3.6 Technology convergence

This section of the paper has outlined a range of flexible delivery technologies, each of which has specific hardware requirements. The evidence available suggests a convergence of technologies that should be a factor in planning for educational applications of technology. Increasingly, information is being stored and transmitted in digital form. At the same time, there is a convergence of computing and communications technologies, leading to computer based devices that function as desktop (or portable) computers, but with a multimedia capability that can carry out the functions of a telephone, fax machine, audio system and TV. The 'infotainment' industry is moving towards home video selectable on demand, with a range of other functions that could also be used to support educational applications.

In the US, desktop videoconferencing using the Internet is already being trialed in schools, the higher education sector and industry. Interactive multimedia is now being marketed internationally using communications networks instead of or in addition to physical media such as CD-ROMs.

Much of the above development is not available at a cost that present education and training institutions can meet, if at all, but it indicates a direction to be monitored and included in planning when the cost-effective equation is suitable for trainers to act on.

Regardless of the sophistication of the technology, the quality of courseware and/or the quality of the educational experiences supported should be the major determinant for the implementation of any technology.

4. Effectiveness of the technology delivery modes

Much evidence is beginning to be accumulated to demonstrate the effectiveness of the various technology delivery options. For example, in North America and Europe, as well as in various parts of Asia, several other areas of the world and increasingly in Australia, flexible distributed learning options, including open distance education methods and the use of communications and information technology, are becoming common place for many universities, tertiary colleges and schools rather than a specialised or add-on activity. For schools, it has become a way of providing access and equity to the full range of subject options not able to be offered to students in any other way and for providing access for staff to professional development activities.

At the Australian national conference on distance education in schools held in Cairns, June-July 1993, Professor Ian Lowe (1993) went so far as to say that distance education techniques and technologies were now beginning to lead practice in mainstream teaching and learning. Previously it has been seen as second best or inferior to on-campus, face-to-face teaching.

There is a small but growing body of evidence to support three conclusions with regard to the effectiveness of flexible delivery using technology:

• The use of technologies for delivery is at least as good, and in some instances better than face-to-face programs in terms of both learner satisfaction and achievement, as well as perceptions of the presenters (OTA, 1989).
  
• Methods based on flexible delivery through technologies can be effectively applied to every aspect of every subject in any curriculum given the appropriate design, interactivity, media mix and learner support services.
  
• The effectiveness of programs delivered through technologies is directly related to the design of the programs in terms of using the appropriate learning strategies and mix of delivery mechanisms to:
• cater for all the learners' needs,
• accommodate the requirements of the subject matter,
• take account of the teacher's/lecturer's choices and expertise, and
• ensure the feasibility of reaching learners where they are at no 'additional' cost per person.

There are many findings coming to light from research and evaluation of projects which show that the use of flexible delivery has several positive effects on teaching and learning. For example:

• drop-out rates are reduced when interactive technologies are introduced to correspondence courses;
• satisfaction is usually high;
• achievement (learning) is as good if not better than face-to-face;
• cost per learner is lower and, although overall costs to and for the system are about the same as for conventional operations, the reach and impact are far greater ;
• access and equity are improved considerably with a far-reaching ripple effect socially and economically ; and
• the quality of teaching improves through experience with flexible delivery through technologies. (Lundin, 1992)
  

Some of the effectiveness of the use of technologies in both distance and internal programs comes from the enhanced quality of the teaching and learning experiences possible. For example, some of the options found in a range of projects which can be employed for learning activities include:

• bringing into the educational setting (eg a conference, classroom or workshop) specialists as guest presenters using teleconferencing technology;
  
• sending out learning activities - using satellite television (broadcast and interactive) and teleconferencing of all kinds - to learners who cannot attend on-campus or face-to-face sessions, perhaps in remote locations or because of work or personal commitments or choice;
  
• bringing or joining-in one, two or three isolated learners from their workplace or home to take part in a regular, scheduled, on-campus session;
  
• providing self-help or learning circle sessions for learners (eg. audioconference 'meet-me' between learners in scattered but similar workplaces; computer-text conferencing);
  
• sending out to learners videotapes of face-to-face sessions ('candid classroom' or 'Tutored Video Instruction') with follow-up audio teleconferencing with the key presenter.

These practices indicate that there is little reason to continue the distinction between internal and external/distance learning either for statistics or for funding purposes because the range of mixed media and mixed mode options coupled with their proven effectiveness means that all learners should be able to access the same activities given effective program design, a proper delivery infrastructure and local support.

5. The concept of a model and a conceptual framework for professional development

The concept of a model has been informed by the work of Weil & Joyce (1978). A model of teaching and learning consists of a set of guidelines for planning, implementing and evaluating educational activities and environments appropriate for achieving certain kinds of goals. It includes a theory that justifies it, a description of what it should be used for, an explanation of why it is effective and practical guidelines for implementation. The model should be accompanied by empirical evidence that it works. Different models are required for different educational orientations.

The main concern about developing effective models is that they should primarily be about improving the quality of professional adult learning. Indeed, the use of technologies is no longer limited to distance education but are being used in a wide variety of ways to share teaching and learning (Smith and Kelly, 1989), educational expertise, resources and research in all educational settings. These options go beyond the traditional notion of distance education (Barker, Frisbie and Patrick, 1989; Daniel, 1996; Garrison, 1987; Lundin and others, 1991; Lundin, Evans and Sandery, 1994).

The conceptual framework for the discussion of models, therefore, draws upon four main areas of educational theory:

• approaches to teaching and learning;
• reflective practice in professional development;
• conversational models of teaching and learning using interactive technologies;
• adult learning principles in transactional distance education.

5.1 Approaches to teaching and learning.

Biggs (1990) identifies three models for conceiving the teaching and learning process with implications for tertiary institutions: (i) Quantitative, (ii) Institutional, and (iii) Qualitative. These three models are viewed hierarchically. Model (i) assumes that the teacher or trainer possesses the relevant knowledge and the ability to impart it in an expository manner. Model (ii) assumes the teacher or trainer possesses the knowledge and a repertoire of teaching skills and strategies. Model (iii) assumes the teacher can operate beyond level (i) and (ii), in line with constructivist approaches, by providing space for the learners to enhance personal meaning based on their learning experiences.

5.2 Reflective practice in professional development.

The second theoretical area concerns the reflective approach to professional practice which is currently supported by many practitioners because it can be applied to a variety of teaching/learning situations. Recent research into, and ways of thinking about, learning indicate that improvement in educational practice is most likely to occur through a reflective approach to professional staff development rather than through the adoption of specific methods or techniques of teaching (Smyth, 1987). There is a trend from the development of tertiary teachers and trainers as managers or technicians, able to efficiently transmit, control and evaluate the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes associated with a predefined set of goals and activities (Tabachnich & Zeichner, 1991), to developing professional teachers who are reflectively able to engage in ongoing inquiry-oriented learning and who are academically and emotionally sensitive to the needs of learners (Grimmett & Erickson, 1988). Zeichner & Liston (1990), for example, identify four varieties of reflective practice based on their analysis of traditions of reform during this century: (i) An academic version (e.g., Shulman, 1987); (ii) A social efficiency version (e.g., Ross & Kyle, 1987); (iii) A developmentalist version (e.g., Duckworth, 1987); and (iv) a social reconstructionist version (e.g., Beyer, 1988; Maher & Rathbone, 1986). This fourth version stresses reflection about the social and political context of education and the assessment of classroom actions for their ability to contribute towards greater equity, social justice and humane conditions in education and society.

5.3 Conversational models of teaching and learning using interactive technologies.

Thirdly, Holmberg (1981) describes teaching and learning at a distance as 'guided didactic conversation'. The differences between methodologies used in distance education, in terms of the process of 'conversation', however, comes through the use of delayed, asynchronous conversation (eg. correspondence materials) over extended periods of time as opposed to the use of synchronous (real time), interactive communications technologies where conversation is immediate. This 'conversational' aspect of learning and teaching design has been developed by Romiszowski (1992a and b) who has outlined five general theoretical areas for models of design which can exploit interactive technologies:

• Programmed instructional designs,
• Computer-supported performance systems,
• Information mapping approaches,
• Networked conversational virtual learning communities,
• Interactive simulations,
• Structured communication approaches.

He proposes a synergistic model where the design and development of the interactive multimedia components of the model occur alongside the design and development of supporting discussion (ie., 'conversational') environments. The models proposed in this study will be based on variations of this synergistic model. They will involve the implementation of a multi-pathway approach (Lundin, 1991; Gerber & Lundin, 1992; Mason, 1994; Burke, Lundin & Daunt, 1997) to develop surface-level interactions and deep-level interactions (Marton & Saljo, 1976) using networked communications technologies, especially in relation to teleconferencing.

5.4 Adult learning principles in transactional distance education.

Finally, although these theories can apply across the whole spectrum of education and training, adults undertaking professional development programs through technologies/flexible delivery must address specific needs. It is, therefore, necessary to apply adult learning principles to the design, production and delivery of such programs (Moore, 1992). This aspect along with the interactive attributes of emerging technologies have led to what Moore (1992) calls the 'transactional theory of distance education' in which these new media affect the structure of course design, the dialogue between learner and instructor and the autonomy of the distant learner.

The above theoretical concepts of qualitative learning, reflective practice, conversational designs and adult learning principles provide an appropriate conceptual framework for analysing current practice and formulating more appropriate models to enhance learning through the use of interactive technologies across a range of professions.

7. Participation and Interaction

Most discussion and papers about educational teleconferencing tend to focus on the nature of the technologies. For example, with regard to videoconferencing the newest codec, the relative merits of various bandwidths, or the potential of optical fibre versus satellites seem to be of special interes. What is really important, however, in terms of education is an understanding of the special attributes of the various forms of communications and information technologies and how, through creative educational designs, these attributes can be exploited within sound pedagogical (or andragogical) models which take into account the four elements discussed above. The key to these models is the way in which participation and interaction are incorporated to enhance learning.

Participation and interaction are important elements of the teaching-learning process. Technologies, if exploited properly, can enhance both of these elements and thereby improve the quality of education - both internally and at a distance. These need to be built into the design of educational programs in such a way that learning is assured:

Without taking away from the important role played by the teacher, it is helpful to remember that what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the teacher does. (Cevero, 1988: 42)

Participation can stimulate local initiatives - eg with regard to professional development.

In a Queensland project called 'TeleSLAQ', the following developments enhanced participation:

• - local convenors were identified at each centre and supported in their leader ship role
  
• all participants were encouraged to undertake various preparatory activities to enable them to make useful contributions to the programs
  
• specific participants in various centres were identified as resource people so that they could share their experiences
  
• follow-up individual and group actions were encouraged and supported.
  
• Many examples of local initiative were demonstrated:
  
• letters written to professional associations, teachers' unions, politicians and others
  
• letters and telephone calls to the various resource people for further ideas and information
  
• locally arranged visits across government and non-government sectors, primary and secondary levels, etc.
  
• many local newspaper, radio and television news items of the local group's involvement in 'TeleSLAQ'
  
• locally arranged interest groups using teleconferencing to bring in expertise to the local centre

It is well recognised that interaction is a special form of participation which enhances the quality of education at all levels and in all modes. Distance education has been limited in this regard. In the past, students enrolled in the external mode suffered disadvantages because:

(a) there was a complete dependence on written correspondence lessons by post, which resulted in a time lag of three to six weeks turn-around time for feedback on assignment work, or for requests for books from a library; (ie if the posted items didn't get bogged completely!);


(b) there was little or no opportunity for live interaction between students and lecturers, except for individual telephone calls often at student expense, (and this was impossible during the day in any case), costly vacation schools in some cases, or expensive lecturers' visits to some centres;


(c) there was little or no opportunity for students to benefit educationally from live group interaction with their colleagues enrolled in the same subject.

Telecommunications can change all that. Interaction can be built into all forms of communications - print, audio, audiographic, video and computers. There are, however, 'levels' of interaction.

Level 1:

'reaction' as a form of interaction with pre-pared audio (radio) and video (television) broadcast. This is a voluntary, usually passive and, therefore, and ineffective and often unproductive kind of interaction.

Level 2:

'parallel participation' in which the program shows activities and asks listeners or viewers to carry out the same activities. For example, 'Play School' and yoga lessons on television involve in this way.

Level 3:

'limited interaction' in which the participant has choices regarding the exploration of a fixed data base. For example, viewdata (eg Viatel) is claimed to be interactive in this way, as are most data bases and programmed learning.

Level 4:

'responses' requested as a form of interaction built into the program software. For example, a 30 minute audio or video-tape can be produced in such a way as to keep a student involved for up to a week or two of study by requestion certain activities and investigations to be carried out, then returning to the tape, and so on.

Level 5:

'stimulated' interaction in which the program acts as a catalyst for local, real, live interaction among participants.

Level 6:

'live' transactional interaction at a distance - ie 'real' interaction through which participants can be comments and questions contribute to the creation of the unique content or data base which becomes the product of the 'program' or event. This interaction can be both synchronous, eg audio and video Teleconferencing, or asynchronous as in forms of computer conferencing.

Live interaction at a distance is a unique attribute of teleconferencing and it is the power of this attribute that can be exploited by careful design of programs and use of creative strategies.

8. Cases/models

Broadcast TV - eg China, OLA (Australia)

CMC/IMM

Cth Bank, QANTAS, Australian Defence

Online models?

In terms of educational design there are two levels which need to be considered. The first is a structural level - to create a total context for teleconferencing so that it is part of an educational program. The second is the internal design of the actual teleconference segments - to use educational activities which depend on participation and interaction. The following three cases demonstrate these two levels effectively.

8.1 The TeleSLAQ Model

In 1983 the School Library Association of Queensland (SLAQ) initiated a series of teleconferences for the professional development of its members. The first programs were by audioteleconference but since 1984 there have also been a number of video conference programs - i.e. one way video with two-way audio.

With regard to the structural level a five part model was developed from the beginning to keep teleconferencing within a context:

(a) pre-conference materials are sent to registered participants

(b) a pre-conference group discussion is held at each centre for one hour prior to the telephone link-up

(c) a teleconference link-up for one hour

(d) a post-conference group discussion for one hour

(e) distribution of the print materials and an audiotape of the one hour link-up to those people unable, usually because of distance, to attend one of the centres.

This was the basic design of each of the programs with some minor variations within them to take account of different content.

The TeleSLAQ Model has been used successfully with several professional groups including teachers, principals, nurses and accountants. Other examples of the use of Interactive Satellite Television include the NTU for Engineers and programs for Rural Health Workers. The European Program for Advanced Continuing Education is another example of the use of ITV.

An extension of this model has now become possible with the use of the Internet. Pre-teleconference and post teleconference discussion can now be held online both synchronously (Internet Relay Chat)

Pre-conference Materials

Each participant who registered received two or three weeks prior to the program a 'welcome' letter and a booklet of 40 to 100 pages. The booklets were designed for three purposes.

• to provide detailed information about all the organisational aspects of the program and about the resource people involved;
  
• to provide material which would stimulate thinking about the topic;
  
• to provide a practical resource which could be referred to after the program.

Before the program date the participants were asked to read the booklet and other related materials, and to carry out some small local investigation such as asking teachers' and principals' opinions on a topic, observing students in their use of the library or resources, and to bring along good, practical ideas which could be shared with colleagues at other centres.

The booklets were illustrated with photographs of the resource people and of activities of groups taken during previous programs.

A pre-conference audiotape or videotape was produced for each program, but sent only to the local convenors. These tapes ranged from 20 to 30 minutes each and contained a statement of key points from each of the resource panel with an introduction by the Chairperson/Producer.

These tapes served as advance organisers both in terms of the stimulus of the lecture-type content and as a way of introducing the voices of the panel members.

Pre-conference discussion

Generally an attempt was made to establish the expectation that the program would involve a three hour commitment: an hour pre-conference discussion, a one hour link-up and an hour post-conference discussion. This was based on a consideration of just how much time people could be expected to devote to this kind of exercise on a Sunday morning. The first of these hours was to be spent more or less as follows:

• convenor makes introductions and briefs participants
  
• Group listens to the pre-conference tape for 20 to 30 minutes. Each booklet contained a page or two with headings and spaces for people to make notes or questions relating to the tape.
  
• Group then share perceptions, identify and discuss key issues, formulate specific questions to put to the panel, and appoint spokespeople to ask those questions when the centre was called upon to do so. Reserve questions and comments were prepared in event that some questions were asked by another centre.
  
• A short coffee break then preceded the telephone link-up.

It was found that the one our was often inadequate especially where there was a large group. Some groups for example met one evening in the week prior to the program.

It was found that the one hour was often inadequate especially where there was a large group. Some groups for example met one evening in the week prior to the program.

Link-up

Each link-up was planned for one hour, but even during the first program it became evident that the on-line time was elastic and could be shortened or lengthened to suit the occasion. Some programs ran slightly over the hour.

Post-conference Discussion

The final section of the three-hour block was included in an attempt to ensure as much as possible that there would be follow-up by the participants, ie to encourage real outcomes.

Audiotape or Videotape Service

This extension of the project to people living 50 kilometres or more from a centre proved very popular.

For each program a technician from the College's Audiovisual Services set up and monitored the tape recording of both group sessions.

The internal designs of the various TeleSLAQ programs have depended on the objectives, resource people and the content. To some people the work 'teleconference' conjures up associations relating to conferences where speeches are made to a passive audience who, if there is time, may be permitted a question or two at the end. this type of activity may, of course, be conducted via telephone, but it does not make the best use of the interactive aspect. Other terms are being used in teleconferencing: for example 'teletutorial' (usually only for point-to-point, tutor and student), for 'telelecture' and 'telemeetings'. Conceivably the prefix 'tele' could be added to a whole range of educational activities.

As this project progressed it became apparent that there were a number of strategies for teaching and learning as well as for meetings which would exploit interaction, and that these could be built into teleconferences. In addition to question and answer there could be debates, interviews, reporting and role playing, for example.

The other educational aspect of the design of TeleSLAQ is that it was based on sound adult education principles. It was assumed, therefore, that participants would:

• possess high level of motivation for the activity
  
• come with very definite and well defined needs
  
• prefer a problem-centre approach (something practical)
• require flexibility in the procedures within programs
  
• demand maximum participation where possible
  
• show considerable initiative both before and after the programs.

By way of example for exploiting videoconferencing a segment from a TeleSLAQ II program, 'Storytelling across the curriculum', is useful. Essentially, this segment involved an adaptation by the presenter, Dr Barbara Poston-Anderson, of the tale of the 'Pied Piper of Hamelin'. four of the eight sites linked up were allocated a sector of the city of Hamelin, a number of characters to portray and suggestions for their part of the script.

8.2 ELIC

Another example of a professional development program using telecommunications was the 11 week Early Literacy Inservice Course (ELIC) for primary teachers in Queensland, Australia. Although this course did not involve videoconferencing in its strictest sense, it is an excellent example of using the appropriate media in a cost-beneficial way.

With regard to the structural level, the ELIC course provided, first of all, a printed workbook for each of the 11 units. These workbooks contained all the directions for processes and content. The combination of using the print, audio teleconferencing, satellite video and local group discussion is set out below:

15 minutes: each group meets at the local site to share, read and discuss coursebook materials

15 minutes: each group has an audioconference with its tutor

45 minutes: satellite television program, 'Skytalking'

15 minutes: local group discussion

30 minutes: each group has an audioconference with tutor

The unit booklets display variety of internal designs used to ensure participation and interaction to fulfil the various objectives. These include working in pairs, taking notes, whole group brainstorming, formulating questions, answering questions, undertaking workplace activities between programs and so on.

8.3 The 'Victor Kiam' Model

This is the name I have given to large scale Interactive Satellite Television programs which have featured such people as Victor Kiam, Peter Drucker and Edward de Bono. The structural design again is different from the ones above and catered for 200 or more sites with several hundred people at each, with a total audience sometimes of 15,000 to 20,000. The day would be organised as follows:

9:00 am Local site introduction to processes and morning coffee, distribution of materials (eg a book by the key presenter)

10:00 am Live, interactive satellite television transmission, with scenarios/case studies, a brief presentation, then questions by telephone and answers from the presenter(s), usually organised by attendants at each site collecting questions written on cards by members of the local audience

12 noon Lunch and local speaker at each site

2:00 pm Live, interactive satellite television transmission as above

4:00 pm Close

These programs are usually on a subscription by site basis. That is, for a fee, the site is enabled to receive the program. Then, in turn, the local organisers 'resell' the seats to local participants and retain any profit gained. This model's greatest strength is in the economies of scale that are gained. A similar model over half a day using audioconferencing on a 'meet-me' basis has also been observed with health care workers.

9. Decision-Making Model

The choice of open learning/flexible delivery options should be based on four decision-making considerations:

9.1 Assess the needs of the participants/clients and practitioners:

• Personal needs: age, gender, abilities, learning styles, nature of employment and work patterns, home responsibilities, nature of isolation, other special personal needs;
  
• Professional needs: program relevance, experience and qualifications, present knowledge level;
  
• Access needs: location, distribution (geographic), disability, number of participants/practitioners; and
  
• Choice: types of programs/courses/services available, place, pace, time, timing, duration, individual or cohort preference.

9.2 Clarify the objectives of the program, nature of the processes and the relevance of the content:

• Interaction and participation needs: level and type of interaction required among the participants such as live (ie synchronous, immediate/real time) versus delayed (asynchronous) interaction, level and type of supervision required, number of participants/practitioners;
  
• Teaching/learning strategies most appropriate for the content and objectives; and
  
• Content demands: need for audio, need for visual component (eg still graphics, colour and motion), type of knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to be acquired and/or demonstrated.

9.3 Consider the choice and skills of the practitioners:

• Confidence and skills in particular mode of delivery;
  
• Program strategies chosen as most appropriate; and
  
• Support available.

8.4 Determine the feasibility of the program:

• Access to equipment and systems for production and delivery, by participants/practitioners;
  
• Costs and availability of funds;
  
• Local support for participants (eg local site co-ordinator, training in the use of the technology, learning centres, information); and
  
• Institutional support (e.g. library services, production services, administration services).
  
  

10. Future issues, trends and unanswered questions

Future predictions usually fall short of reality both in terms of actual developments and the pace of change. The major areas that will impact on flexible delivery of professional development are associated with:

• changing role of the provider,
• globalisation,
• deregulated climate for advanced education and telecommunications,
• compulsory continuing professional development,
• increased technological options, and
• virtual learning.

The changing role of the provider involves the way in which educational and training institutions organise themselves. There are evolving consortia at national and international levels, there is a very rapid increase in private providers, and learners are demanding increased flexibility in terms of who they contract with for various programs.

With regard to globalisation, in addition to institutional consortia mentioned above, it is increasingly possible for providers to transmit both synchonous and asynchronous education/training programs anywhere in the world. For example, the National Technological University provides masters degrees to several countries via satellite television and electronic mail interaction; Duke University provides a 20 month Masters in Business Administration online for US$19,500. The globalisation of the virtual university or the international virtual higher education market place has some exciting potential, but there are also several issues to be considered in putting it all together. Questions that may be asked include:

• How will learners determine the quality and authenticity of such programs?
• How will credit be obtained for subjects taken from another country?
• Who will the teaching staff belong to if they are teaching through another institution?
• Who will the students belong to?
• What are the regulatory and cultural implications of the globalisation of education?

At best, this globalisation will provided new opportunities and access where little or none previously existed; at worst it will result in educational invasion.

Due to the move to 'open learning' options in advanced education, the rise in private providers who are being encouraged, the corporatisation of government services, deregulation of telecommunications, cuts in government funding for education leading to a user pays system, and a general devolution of authority in education systems, we are entering a deregulated climate in which future developments are very difficult to predict. This type of catch-as-catch-can competitive environment may cause concern if it leads to lower quality of programs and a fragmentation of the curriculum for professions. Attempts to overcome this are evident in terms of the setting of national and international standards for learning outcomes, as well as requiring providers to become registered in the country in which they are operating.

Increased technological options, especially through the convergence of modes of communication onto the Internet, indicate that all of the above areas of development will expand exponentially. This, plus the increased miniturisation of computer technology, the increased flexibility of computer use, the personalisation of communication contacts and the personalisation of search engines, will make it possible for adults to tap learning just-in-time from sources anywhere in the world to meet life and work needs as they arise. This type of virtual or 'feral' learning will not necessarily have any overall sequence or plan and educational institutions will be challenged in terms of learners fronting up for recognition of prior learning. The learner, whether professional adult or young child will be able to say: 'I amy my school' or 'I am my university'.

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