Abstract
Web-based learning and teaching
is a rapidly growing area in education. Traditional forms of distance education
are being transformed as the Internet becomes the new medium for communication.
Web-based course delivery can offer a vibrant learning environment created
through different teaching strategies, activities, and technologies. This
paper briefly outlines some of the literature relevant to this new educational
milieu providing insight into constructivist epistemology, situated learning,
cognitive apprenticeship, and instructional design of web-based learning.
Distance education, in which the
teacher and students are separated by time and place, is currently the fastest
growing form of domestic and international education (McIsaac & Gunawardena,
2001). New opportunities are emerging in the area of web-based distance education
as bandwidth and transmission speeds increase. These new opportunities are
increasing accessibility and quality of distance education.
Education courses delivered through
the Internet are reaching nontraditional students (Gubernick & Ebeling, 1997;
Shein, 1997). Nontraditional students may include a home-schooled student
or a student who is seeking a web-based course of study based on the nature
and experience of the on-line environment. Traditional students are also enrolling
in online courses to supplement their course experiences when the course is
not available within the school that they are attending (S. Amundrud, personal
interview, December 2001).
Rural schools and school divisions
are experiencing a declining enrolment as well as a teacher shortage. As a
result, specialized classes and programs are being cut due to lack of enrolment
and funding. The report Task Force and Public Dialogue on the Role of
the School (2000) recommend providing equitable access of courses in
an online delivery format. Saskatchewan Education has responded to this need
and has partnered with school divisions in the creation of web-based courses.
Many courses are being piloted this year involving students throughout Saskatchewan
(S. Amundrud, personal interview, December 2001). These web based pilot courses
are replacing the traditional distance education courses of the ‘industrial
era’ (Garrison, June 2000).
Web-based course delivery offers
a complex learning and teaching environment. A vibrant learning community
can be created using different teaching strategies, activities, and technologies.
This review briefly outlines some of the literature relevant to this new educational
milieu providing insight into the theoretical foundations and instructional
design of web-based learning.
Emerging Pedagogy
Traditional forms of distance
education involve passive media such as correspondence texts, audio and video
broadcasts, and often involve the learner communicating with only the instructor.
Internet technologies can improve the traditional forms of distance education
through increased communication (Shrum, 1998; McIssac & Gunawardena, 2001).
The distinctions between newer forms of distance education utilizing Internet
technologies and traditional face-to-face education are being blurred in the
facilitation of “individualized” and “collaborative” learning (McIsaac & Gunawardena,
2001). McIsacc and Gunawardena (2001) state, “the explosion of information
technologies has brought learners together by erasing the boundaries of time
and place for both site-based and distance learners” (p. 403).
The development of the Internet,
and new cost-effective technologies has promoted an astounding growth of distance
education courses. Provinces across Canada, including Saskatchewan, are implementing
an infrastructure to increase bandwidth. High speed Internet access coupled
with more sophisticated compression technologies will improve web-based distance
education courses. Kevin Dowler, the new media specialist in the Southeast
Distance Education Pilot Project (Banks, 2001), cites SaskTel stating “the
new CommunityNet access will reduce the bandwidth problem for students” (p
8). Saskatchewan Education’s Learning Technology initiatives of web-based
distance education courses have enrolled many students throughout Saskatchewan
(S. Amundrud, personal interview, December 2001). Traditional distance education
courses of the ‘industrial era’ are slowly being eroded as the Internet and
new technological developments “challenge educators to reconceptualize the
idea of schooling and lifelong learning” (McIsacc & Gunawardena, 2001, p 404).
The web-based learning environment
requires a constructivist learning setting for a healthy learning environment
to exist. Traditionally distance education courses of the ‘industrial era’
were based on an objectivist learning setting. In this setting teachers delivered
content through satellite technologies to the passive student. Few opportunities
for student-initiated questions, independent thought, or interaction between
students occur in this environment. Still today this method of delivery is
used and unfortunately has been transferred to some web-based courses. However,
there is a shift away from this environment to a learner-centered collaborative
environment utilizing constructivist-learning theory. Constructivism is not
a theory about teaching; it is an epistemological position.
Constructivist learning theory
is based on the assumption that learners construct knowledge as they attempt
to make sense of their experiences. What we know depends on the kinds of experiences
that we have had and how we organize these into existing knowledge structures.
Driscoll (1994) states that new conflicting experiences will cause “perturbations
in these structures” (p. 376), where new knowledge structures arise making
sense of the new information. Several different constructivist-learning theories
exist. Common to each theory is that (a) learning is an active rather than
passive process, and (b) we construct knowledge based on what we know (Kanuka
& Anderson, 1998). The role of the teacher is to scaffold or organize information
into “conceptual clusters of problems, questions and discrepant situations
in order to engage the student’s interest” (Hanley, 1994). The constructivist
environment is student centered, and encourages students to ask questions
and make their own analogies and drawing their own conclusions. Teachers assist
students through this individualized active process of developing insight
and building of tacit knowledge.
Related to web-based learning
are two widely accepted epistemological positions: cognitive or critical constructivism
and social constructivism. Cognitive constructivism assumes that knowledge
is constructed through internal contradictions resulting from environmental
interactions (Driscoll, 1994). Piaget describes the cognitive development
of humans, and explicates it as the construction of knowledge through experience.
These experiences create schemas, or mental models (Kearsley, 2001). These
schemas are altered, enlarged, and made more sophisticated through two processes:
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the way humans transform
new information so that it makes sense within their existing knowledge structure.
Accommodation refers to the change in cognitive structure in the attempt to
understand new information (Kearsley, 2001; Rogoff, 1991).
Rogoff (1991) also talks about
the ‘Piagetian Shift’ in the cognitive development of children, and how social
influences enhance changes in perspective. Through social interaction participants
share perspectives, which may cause cognitive conflict. This conflict may
be resolved when an individual accepts the view of another. Individuals consider
the merits of the alternatives and may become dissatisfied with their current
understanding and change their perspective. Through attempting to resolve
cognitive conflict peers promote the advancement of cognitive development
(Rogoff, 1991).
Piaget helps us to understand
that learning should be whole, authentic, and real. Less emphasis is on isolated
skills that try to teach individual concepts. Students will learn isolated
skills in a Piagetian classroom, but they are more likely to learn them engaged
in authentic, meaningful activities. Authentic activities are inherently interesting
and meaningful to the student. Web-based technology offers a vast array of
such opportunities to help expand the conceptual and experiential background
of the individual.
Another prevalent position is
social constructivism. Social constructivism is aligned with online learning
(Kanuka & Anderson, 1998). Social constructivism assumes that knowledge is
grounded in the relationship between the knower and the known. Knowledge is
generated through social interaction. Vygotsky (1990) emphasized the critical
importance of culture and the importance of the social context for cognitive
development. Social experiences allow patterns to emerge and through conversational
language these patterns are negotiated into meaning.
Driscoll (1994) summarizes the
goals of constructivist instruction as problem solving, critical thinking,
reasoning, and the active and reflective use of knowledge. Constructivist
learning theories are becoming widely accepted in all fields of education,
including web-based distance education. Computers can provide an interactive
environment that create “an effective means for implementing constructivist
strategies that would be difficult to accomplish in other media”(Driscoll,
1994, p 395).
How students learn and their ability
to construct knowledge has implications for how teachers instruct. The exploration
of these implications for teaching is necessary for the success of the constructivist-learning
environment. Katy Campbell (1999) highlights three main principles of constructivism
from a design point of view, which are:
1. Instruction
be concerned with the experiences, convictions and constructs that learners
already possess.
2. Instruction
be structured so that it can be easily understood and modified by the learner.
3. Instruction
be designed to facilitate exploration, extrapolation, and elaboration.
Lave and Wenger's (1991) notion
of "Legitimate Peripheral Participation" provides a framework for induction
into a community of practice. A key aspect of situated learning is the notion
of the apprentice observing the ‘community of practice’. Lave and Wenger propose
that the initial participation in a culture of practice can be observation
from the periphery or legitimate peripheral participation. The participant
moves from the role of observer, as learning and observation in the culture
increase, to a fully functioning member. The progressive movement towards
full participation enables the learner to piece together the culture of the
group and establish their identity.
“Knowing
is inherent in the growth and transformation of identities and it is located
in relations among practitioners, their practice, the artifacts of that
practice, and the social organization…of communities of practice.”(Lave
and Wenger, 1991, p 122).
Similar to the idea of legitimate
peripheral participation is Vygotsky’s (1990) “Zone of Proximinal Development”.
This theoretical construct states that learning occurs best when an expert
guides a novice from the novice's current level of knowledge to the expert's
level of knowledge. Bridging the zone of proximinal development construct
with legitimate peripheral participation construct may be accomplished if
one thinks of a zone in which the expert or mentor takes the learner from
the peripheral status of knowing to a deeper status. This may be accomplished
with or without intention as Lave and Wegner (1991) state:
Legitimate
peripheral participation is not itself an educational form, much less
a pedagogical strategy or a teaching technique. It is an analytic viewpoint
on learning, a way of understanding learning. We hope to make it clear
that learning through legitimate peripheral participation takes place
no matter which educational form provides a context for learning, or whether
there is any intentional educational form at all. Indeed, this viewpoint
makes a fundamental distinction between learning and intentional instruction
(1991, p. 40).
However the expert scaffolds the
environment to the extent in which the learner is engaged with the discourse
and participants within the zone and is drawn from a peripheral status to
a more engaged status. The peripheral learner interacts with the mentor, expert
learners and peers within this zone. More able learners (peers) or the mentor
will work with the less able learner potentially allowing for socially constructed
knowledge.
Herrington and Oliver (1995) link
characteristics of situated learning with instructional design of interactive
multimedia. The three mutually constitutive elements of the learning process
are the learner, the implementation and the interactive multimedia program
(Figure 1).
Figure 1 (Herrington & Oliver,
1995, p 4)
One form of interactive multimedia
may be a web-based distance education course. Based on a situated learning
environment the course would provide authentic context. Real-life applications
of the subject material would provide motivation and the bridge between abstract
and practical concepts. Authentic activities involve a loosely structures
approach with the learner developing part of the task. Real word activities
involve uncertainty and are often complex. Authentic activities strive to
emulate real world activities. With the help of the expert or teacher, the
process of modeling allows the student to observe the task before they attempt
it. The learning environment should also entertain multiple perspectives.
The learner has the opportunity to investigate various avenues moving away
from a linear format of investigation. Providing multiple roles and opportunities
engages the learner in decision-making and critical and creative thinking.
A situated learning environment
allows the learner to collaborate, reflect, and to articulate. As the learner
collaborates with other members of the environment, they are able to establish
their identity. The asynchronous nature of the online environment is conducive
for reflection. As the learner interacts with others, they have the opportunity
“to articulate, negotiate and defend their knowledge”(Herrington & Oliver,
1995, p 6). Making their tacit knowledge explicit is very important in the
process of learning and legitimate peripheral participation. Coaching at critical
times, and scaffolding of support keeps learners focused and organized. The
teacher is able to model concepts and skills for the learners. The teacher
offers hints and reminders, provides feedback, and scaffolds the learning.
Coaching is situation specific, and scaffolding involves instructional design.
Providing for integrated assessment
of learning within the tasks is an important characteristic of situated learning.
Having a formative type of evaluation supports the progression of learning
providing immediate, contextualized feedback and encourages self-reflection.
Summative evaluation contradicts the idea of growth throughout the learning
process, and focuses on a final evaluation promoting the ‘regurgitation’ of
material. Students able to ‘cram’ for the final exam access short-term memory
to achieve a final mark, however this information disappears from memory soon
after. Summative evaluation focuses in on the end result and bypasses the
entire learning process.
Barbara Rogoff (1990) describes
the cognitive development of children as an apprenticeship through “guided
participation in a social activity with companions who support and stretch
children’s understanding of and skill in using tools of culture” (vii). The
apprenticeship model is based on Vygotsky’s work, which involves peers (novices)
working closely together with a teacher (expert) in joint problem solving.
Cognitive Apprenticeship focuses on cognitive and metacognitive skills, rather
than on physical skills and processes of the traditional forms of apprenticeship
(Brown et al., 1989). Rogoff (1990) states that intersubjectivity underlies
the process of guided participation. Intersubjectivity is the sharing of focus
and purpose between the novice, expert, and
Intersubjectivity is the sharing
of focus and purpose between the novice, expert, and peers. Within this situated
context the novice is able to participate in skills beyond those that they
are capable of handling independently. The internalization of the shared cognitive
process by the novice extends existing knowledge and skills. The process for
this internalization takes place through the following method:
1. Modeling
-- involves an expert's carrying out a task so that student can observe
and build a conceptual model of the processes that are required to accomplish
the task.
2. Coaching
- consists of observing students while they carry out a task and offering
hints, feedback, modeling, reminders, etc.
2. Articulation
- includes any method of getting students to articulate their knowledge,
reasoning, or problem-solving processes.
3. Reflection
- enables students to compare their own problem-solving processes with those
of an expert or another student.
4. Exploration
- involves pushing students into a mode of problem solving on their own.
Forcing them to do exploration is critical, if they are to learn how to
frame questions or problems that are interesting and that they can solve
(Collins, Brown, Newman, 1989, 481-482).
An example of cognitive apprenticeship
may be a teacher modeling the process of editing a literary work of a student
in synchronous environment such as a whiteboard. The students can participate
in real-time as the teacher edits the literature with different colored highlights
and text to illustrate certain concepts. The teacher may then summarize the
process of editing and post the summary to the bulletin board. The teacher
may then ask the students to edit the same literary work and post the revised
version to the bulletin board for peer review. The teacher is available to
provide coaching through email (asynchronous) as well as set times on the
synchronous chat system. Through these forms of communication the teacher
can coach students in the editing process. Students are able to reflect upon
the posted work, as well as the teacher’s example. As the teacher views the
progress of the students, the teacher can tailor questions and work for the
individual student allowing them to expand areas that require further attention.
Exploration of individualized assignments allows the individual to be challenged
and improve on areas that require attention, allowing articulation of knowledge.
The online environment encourages
individual cognitive growth through independent learning as well as through
social interaction or intersubjectivity. The environment is monitored by the
teacher who is there as a mentor and as a guide for the learner. It is in
the locus of the intersubjectivity in which Vygotsky and Piaget differ in
perspective (Rogoff, 1990); “In Vygotsky’s perspective, joint problem solving
occurs between partners, whereas in Piaget’s view, individuals work with independence
and equality on each other’s ideas.” (p. 140). Piaget’s theories describe
the independent learning of the individual, and Vygotsky’s theories describe
the learning that takes place from social interaction. The combination of
these theories provides a theoretical framework for the virtual learning community.
Constructivism is grounded in the work of Piaget and Vygotsky. Leve and Wenger
as well as Barbara Rogoff extend our understanding of the learning environments
of Piaget and Vygotsky. The understanding of these theories helps develop
the ‘big picture’ of the cognitive processes of learners, which can be extended
and applied to virtual learning. This theoretical framework for learning in
a web-based environment is essential in the first step of the design of the
online community of learners.
Strategies for
Designing On-line Instruction
Web programming allows for endless
design structures that can transform the static traditional distance education
course. It is important that the course designer redesigns the existing course
rather than simply transferring an old course to the new medium (Schrum, 1998).
Utilizing tools for course design, the design structure can be visually appealing,
engaging, interactive, and dynamic. The designer will have to determine how
to promote active as well as independent learning characteristics within the
structure of the course (Schrum, 1998). Certain subject matter and assignments
will lend themselves to be completed individually or within a group.
A useful model and didactical
tool for the instructor is the FIKS-model (Flexible IT-based course system,
Figure 2) (Andresen, 1999, as cited in Witfelt, 2000; Mathias & Kenneth, 2001).
This model helps the instructor cope with the following three questions:
1. Learning Principles:
which learning principles are to be used?
2. Organizational
Model: how is the process of teaching organized?
3. Software genres:
which Software genres are the students going to work with?
(Witfelt, 2000, p237; Mathes &
Kenneth, 2001, p. 32)
Figure 2 (Witfelt, 2000, p237;
Mathes & Kenneth, 2001, p. 32)
Figure 3 VLSM (Boulton, 2002)
The virtual learning environment
is student centered. The teacher must be aware of the components of the virtual
learning scaffolding model (VLSM, Figure 3), an adapted model aligned with
the philosophy of Saskatchewan Education. The virtual teacher’s task is to
scaffold learning to support the learner in the use of the design elements
of the virtual learning environment. The scaffolding process engages and supports
learning of the individual through the integration of a variety of instructional
strategies that utilize the two different organizational models and the diverse
ICT Genres. This instructional design involves learning activities based on
the Instructional Strategies of the teacher that may be social or non-social
in nature.
The first layer of the VLSM involves
the use of instructional strategies, which are as follows:
1. Direct Instruction
2. Indirect Instruction
3. Experiential
Learning
4. Independent
Study
5. Interactive
Instruction (Instructional Approaches, 1999)
Andresen (as cited in Witfelt,
2000; Mathias & Kenneth, 2001) examines the first layer of the instructors
design framework as learning principles of the student. Based on the learning
objectives the teacher will determine which instructional strategies are appropriate
for use. Through the use of various instructional strategies the teacher is
able to meet the many different learning styles of students.
Teachers will need to examine
their pedagogical beliefs and take into consideration the theory of multiple
intelligences (Witflet, 2000; Bishop, Hayes, & Seehusen, 2001). The theory
of multiple intelligences is controversial and has not been proven, however
educators cannot dispute that students learn in a variety of ways. The theory
of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in which the subject
material may be presented to facilitate effective learning. Meeting the individual
learning needs of the student can be accomplished through the use of eight
potential pathways ‘individualizing’ instruction. The eight multiple intelligences
(Gardner, cited in Armstrong, 2000) are as follows:
1. Linguistic
2. Logical-Mathematical
3. Spatial
4. Bodily Kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
The organization model of online
instruction may be accomplished two ways, synchronously or asynchronously.
Web-based technologies promote synchronous and asynchronous communication
providing access to and from geographically isolated communities. A combination
of synchronous and asynchronous communications is desirable for online learning.
Most tasks that require thought and reflection would utilize asynchronous
communication. The use of synchronous communication through courseware such
as WebCT “ can allow for a virtual chat through text, and possibilities for
audio and video. Chris Dede (1996) comments that “groupware” tools support
effective interactions and enable the formation of virtual communities. Dede
(1996) states that “such ‘telepresence’ enables mentoring across distance
and provides a social context that reinforces and motivates learning” (p 12).
The virtual learning community involves learners who are separated physically
and rely completely on communication technology, partially overcoming geographical
inhibitions.
The ICT (Information Communication
Technology) genre involves the use of all tools in the forms of software,
online programs, and resources to create new and improved conditions for learning.
1. WebCT“ Chat
2. WebCT“ BB
3. Email
4. Word Processor
5. Web Resources
(Static - information)
6. Web Resources
(Dynamic - interactive)
7. News (Listserve)
8. Whiteboard
The ICT genre is implemented will
correspond with the selected organizational model and instructional strategy.
The layers of VLSM work in unison and require that online instruction utilize
the many different combinations of the four layers in order to meet the many
different intelligences and learning styles the students possess (Witfelt,
2000). In a study titled e-learning: Studying Canada’s Virtual Seconday Schools,
Barker and Wendel (2001) found two general types of students who were attracted
to online course delivery. The first being “aggressive, self-directed learners
with clear expectations and goals” which are students who choose virtual schooling
as a first resort, and the second being “underachievers in conventional schools
for whom virtual schooling is a last resort”(p 122). The latter study also
reports that success factors are weighted towards students for whom virtual
schooling is a first choice. Students who are independent learners and take
responsibility for their learning will be able to learn in the majority of
online environments whether or not the VLSM is utilized. The VLSM is designed
to expand the online learning environment involving a heterogeneous mix of
learners. Students who are generally underachievers in conventional schools
are not motivated to learn because of a disinterest in learning. Typically
these students have seen little success because their learning needs were
not met in the conventional classroom, or by various other factors such as
low parental involvement, or lack of self-esteem. If instruction is not varied
within the conventional classroom then certain students whose learning needs
are not being met become disinterested and stop learning. Often these students
do not succeed and look for alternative routes to achieve attention, which
often lead to behavior problems, and classroom management issues. The VLSM
for online courses helps create a learning environment in which the conventional
disinterested learner becomes interested in learning and engaged with the
course materials (Boulton, 2002). Barker and Wendel (2001) report that students
that find success in virtual schooling having characteristics such as self-motivation,
supportive parents, a working knowledge of computers and the Internet, orientated
towards completing work, as well as skills and knowledge that are aligned
with grade level placement. The parents, teachers, and administrators reflect
these characteristics in their description of the successful student within
the latter report. The challenge for educators and instructional designers
are to develop web-based distance education courses that are inclusive not
exclusive. Taking advantage of the VLSM for course delivery can foster a more
inclusive environment engaging the students at all levels of motivation.
Issues of Importance
Student Characteristics
Online learners convey attitudes
of greater control and responsibility toward their learning (Schrum, 1998).
Students who are self-motivated and take a course of interest will have greater
success than students who need external motivation and continual encouragement
to stay with the course (Barker & Wendel, 2001). The latter report also finds
that students who are successful “have diverse background but also strong
commonalties” such as:
-
These students
have strong parental support.
-
Students are
at grade level in their knowledge and skills.
-
Students have
some knowledge of computers and the Internet.
-
Students who
have not experienced success in conventional schools have found some success
in the virtual school when provided with extensive and positive feedback.
-
Students are
self-directed and well motivated to complete and turn in their work for
marking and feedback.
-
Students may
have special needs due to moderate and severe disabilities. (p 102)
The Role of
the Teacher/Adult-Supervisor
The role of the teacher supervisor
is key for the success of the disinterested student. The teacher supervisor
may be a teacher in a school with a student taking an online course, or they
may be a parent/guardian of a home-schooled child. I will refer to this role
herein as ‘teacher supervisor’. Monitoring student progress and communicating
with the online teacher is an important task of the teacher supervisor. The
role of the teacher supervisor needs to be recognized as an important element
of the student’s success (Boulton, 2002). Barker and Wendle (2001) state,
“Unless there is an adult present to provide supervision and help, the chances
of success are small. This is especially true of students who have failed
to achieve success in the classroom.”(p. 99). Time is required for the teacher
supervisor to monitor the student’s progress and communicate with the online
teacher. The time allowed for the teacher supervisor should coincide with
scheduled time the student is to work on the online course. Providing time
and proper scheduling has implications for the division office as well as
the school administrator. Teacher time and proper scheduling allows for greater
success in meeting with the student, providing assistance with the material,
possibly providing external motivation, and communicating with the parents
of the student as well as the online teacher.
Teacher Characteristics
The demands of the virtual learning
environment on teachers is different than of the conventional classroom. Barker
and Wendel (2001) found six key characteristics of the ideal virtual teacher:
1. an interest
in innovation and in technology
2. creativity
and enthusiasm
3. a desire
and ability to work collaboratively
4. a commitment
to put students first
5. a willingness
to work with parents, and
6. some technology
skills and the ability to adapt quickly to change. (p 103)
Some provinces do not limit the
number of students enrolled in an online course. These provinces provide tutors
and markers for the instructors of courses with large enrollment numbers.
Tutors and markers may or may not be certified teachers. Teachers in other
provinces are critical of large enrollment numbers. In the Barker and Wendel
(2001) study a pupil-teacher ratio had not been established. Teachers in the
virtual environment are burdened by the additional time required for communication.
Comparing face-to-face communication with typing messages sent via-email,
much more time is required for virtual teachers to communicate with their
students. Students can feel isolated very quickly without a response to an
email. Saskatchewan Education has limited the number of students in an online
course to twenty (S. Amundrud, personal interview, December 2001). This low
enrollment number allows for the teacher to communicate to each individual
student without the need of a tutor or marker. Barker and Wendel (2001) indicate
that staffing and teacher-student ratios are limited by the funding formulae
and budget. Economic restrictions can restrict student teacher interaction
by increasing the number of students in the online class. The report makes
recommendations regarding teacher-student interaction; “high expectations
for contact with students and simultaneous expectations for course development
in addition to teaching students” (p 112). Saskatchewan Education recognizes
the need for low teacher-student ratio and has funding in place so that economic
restrictions do not interfere with the ratio (S. Amundrud, personal interview,
December 2001). The Barker and Wendel (2001) study also suggests that teachers
need a continual upgrade in technical skills. Professional development is
required for teachers and staff due to the reliance and continual change in
technology.
Course Design
and Communication
Schrum (1998) states that students
find that greater reflection is required when typing, than when speaking.
Asynchronous communication provides time for reflection and composition. Reading
email or bulletin board postings encourages reflection. Utilizing these ICT
Genres is important for the varied instruction of the online course. Electronic
communication appears to foster collaboration and group interactions (Schrum
1998). Groupware such as WebCT“ supports this form of instruction. Through
scaffolding learning the teacher can create the conditions for collaboration.
Organization and implementation of collaborative activities is important to
be initiated and sustained by the instructor (McIssac et al., 1999). A key
element of student collaboration is the support and monitoring by the online
teacher. With the majority of communication in text format the online environment
operates differently that the face-to-face environment. Any form of communication
has deficiencies, however understanding them and capitalizing on the strengths
can shadow the weaknesses. Understanding communication in the medium of the
virtual learning environment allows for a more natural development of collaboration.
Critics of online courses emphasize
the isolation of learners through the lack of communication. Communication
is very important in the virtual learning community; it is the “actual brick
and mortar of the community”(Schwier, 2001). The online instructor must be
conscious of this reality and stay in communication with the learner. It is
also important that various forms of communication are fostered between learners,
not just between the instructor and the learners.
Participation of the instructor
in online discussions moderated by students provides more credibility to the
discussion (McIssac et al., 1999). If the theoretical foundations of online
learning are based on cognitive apprenticeship it is important that the mentor
be available to model proper discussion etiquette and to guide the discussion
in a meaningful way. Involving participants from the periphery of the discussion
can be achieved through public or private questioning by the instructor. Participants
share tacit knowledge when they feel comfortable in the environment. The instructor
moves towards the periphery of the discussion and monitors its progress with
little input as the discussions quickly become student centered. Examination
of the tacit knowledge when made explicit by the students helps the instructor
evaluate what information and skills have been internalized. Since face-to-face
meetings before meeting online cannot always be established, it is important
for the promotion of interaction and social presence. Learners need to feel
socially present interacting online (McIssac et al., 1999). As learners move
from the periphery of a virtual learning community and engage the community,
they can claim membership to the community and feel socially present when
interacting.
In the videoconference “Staying
the Course: Retaining Online Students”, Joyce Bishop (2001) indicates that
“frontloading” is very important in retaining students. The initial meetings
of the online course should include an activity for learning style assessment,
an icebreaker, and have open communication. Students need to recognize their
personal learning style. The instructor must be also aware of this latter
information. Students and teachers need to compromise and accommodate each
other in the teaching-learning process. When students understand how they
learn, they can work on expanding ways of learning. The student who requires
external motivation in an online course may look at ways of becoming internally
motivated and learn independently. The teacher must be aware of this and help
the student by being in constant contact with the learner as well as the teacher-supervisor.
Frontloading engages the student
immediately with the course. Allowing the student to talk about themselves
is very important in the initial stages. Scaffolding the initial stages of
the course brings the student into the learning environment, and makes them
feel a part of the group. Interaction throughout the course is important which
usually “results in engagement of ideas, people and processes.”(Schwier, 2001).
Summary and Conclusions
Distance education is growing
to meet the needs of traditional and non-traditional students. With broadband
Internet technologies reaching urban areas as well rural areas, a diverse
course offering can be provided to students throughout the province. Equitable
access to courses can benefit the learning experiences of students. The quality
and diversity of education will increase as the number of online courses and
access develops. However, the instructors of web-based distance education
courses are critical to the success of the learner. Through utilizing the
virtual learning scaffolding model, teachers can incorporate multiple instructional
routes to include all learners, fostering active and social learning.
Reviewing literature surrounding
traditional satellite distance education as well as current web-delivered
distance education indicates that a homogeneous group of students find success
in these types of environments. It is up to educators and instructional designers
to challenge these findings, creating an environment that fosters inclusion.
Through the facilitation of various student-learning styles, the student may
become engaged with the material and take on the responsibility of learning.
The complexity of the online learning
environment must be based on a conceptual framework utilizing constructivist
elements. Critical and social constructivism provides a theoretical basis
for cognitive development. Situated learning as a model of instruction for
web-based courses can foster apprenticeship-style learning that engages the
learner with authentic context.
Reconceptualization of distance
education courses involves the study of virtual learning communities. Understanding
student epistemology and ontology is essential for the design, support, and
growth of the virtual learning community. Legitimate peripheral participation
helps us understand the virtual community of learners and the progressive
involvement and encouragement required for the student to be part of the community.
This paper has attempted to address
the theoretical underpinnings of virtual learning, as well as strategies for
designing online instruction and issues surrounding this form of education.
Understanding this new educational mileu will help instructional designers,
and educators in the struggle to create and deliver successful inclusive online
courses.
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