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China has made important
contributions throughout history to the thought and practice of
education and educational technology. This paper will focus on
the educational span from Confucianism through Emperial Dynasty to
the Modernization of China. This paper is in response to Dr. R.
Schwier's comment in a graduate studies class on Historical
Theoretical Foundations of Education Technology, EDCMM 802, "We need
to look at the world as a whole to understand the history of
educational technology. There seems to be a bias in the North
American Universities in that they only look at what has been
accomplished in Europe and North America." This paper reflects
on some of the accomplishments in educational, methodologies,
philosophies and technology in China.
China has one of the largest populations in the world, and it was as important to the development of educational technology, as was the rest of the world. Classes in philosophy of education largely center around developments that have occurred in Europe and North America. Students come from many different countries to learn western methods of teaching. China has, and is, currently spending millions of dollars to train their students in the philosophies and methodology of education, so they will be able to advance with the rest of the world. As a result, many mainland higher education institutions have assumed a new identity-as commercial enterprises to create profits on their own terms(Law W., 1995). These advancements need to be addressed within the global issues of how higher education should develop in China.
Canada is a pluralist society with many different cultures within its borders. Universities in Canada and United States need to be concerned about limiting their methodologies and philosophies of education with a European bias. For example, look at urban centers in North America and notice the different cultures. Universities in Canada are looking for new funds to remedy the cutbacks that different levels of government have been making, and they are turning to coporations to support new initiatives and even support core operations.As a result, universities are looking more like corporations, especially as they search to market their programs and attract "customers". Countries like China are playing a key role in this new development of searching for more business.
The timeline of Chinese educational
extends as far back as the written word on European history.
The progression of their systems of education helps educators
understand the cause and effect of each stage of development through
the Chinese history. The greatest influences were challenged,
revised and changed through out Chinaís history. The shifts
that have occurred are directly related to previous historical
events in the history of this great and populous nation..
Small communities were formed along the Yellow and Yanytze Rivers around 2200 BC. This was part of the Shang Dynasty where teaching rituals of social life and order were common to the people.
The Western Zhou between 1100-771 BC was the last pre-empire dynasty. Great intellectual ferment took place. Men of higher offices helped in the delivery of education and in the administration of examinations to the learners. The Shun, the emperor and supreme teacher, appointed men to the Ministry of Education, whose responsibility was to be in charge of the newly founded colleges and lower education institutions. The fundamental precept of education was changing so that ordinary people could be educated, from the old standard of tutoring which was reserved solely for the elite.
The curriculums prepared the students for six disciplines: music, archery, charioteering, writing, mathematics(abacus) and rituals. Students started school at the age of nine and were taught mathematics, names of the days, dates of full moon and how to paint 10 Chinese characters. At the age of thirteen archery, music, dance and charioteering were taught. The girls' lessons were separate from the boys' lessons, and consisted of listening to and obeying their future husbands. Skills for painting and weaving were introduced to nurture creativity.
The top
scholars were called "jinshi," a label reserved for learners at the
higher levels of education. Colleges and other educational
institutions focused on unity and harmonyand these values reflected
the high ethical standards on which this society was
built.
To understand the Chinese Educational system, it is important to examine its methodologies and philisophical principles. Confucius had laid the foundation for education and society for the most part. Scholars were respected by society for their high morals and uplifting qualities. In essence, Confucianism defined what it meant to be Chinese and defined Chinese culture(Fouts J.T.,Chan J.C.K., 1995).
Confucius, a
teacher and scholar, gave the Chinese the restoration process of the
superior man. In Confucius' view there were only two types
of person-the superior person(junzi) and the ordinary
person(xiaoren). He put great emphasis on this
categorization(Weizheng Z, 1992). Self-taught and
well- disciplined, Confucius taught people to investigate knowledge
and search out wisdom. Harmony was to prevail in all aspects of
life and life was a learning experience. Seeking knowledge
without thinking is labour lost; thinking without seeking knowledge
is perilous (Cleverley J, 1991).
People have the
ability to bend the will of the lesser ordinary man. Confucius
indicated that by nature men are nearly alike, through the efficacy
of schooling, men are different. The meritorcratic in teaching
is that there should be no class distinctions. Civilized
behavior based on essentials like benevolence and propriety were
central values of Confucian learners. The ultimate goal of
Confucian education is the perfection of man in the ethical sense(Hu
C, 1962). The hope that a good education will change people
for the better inspired many followers.
Some of the practical tenants of the Confucius Schools were:
- Self-cultivation exists within the individual.
- No corporal punishment to students.
- Personal standards of good health.
- Utility of self instruction and learning mostly from others.
- Advancement to the higher levels of education through examinations.
- Education required to advance in society or to be successful.
- Conformity to the ideals and values of moral society.
- Respect for people in authority.
- Segregation of the educated from the labour force.
Confucius
wrote four books. One of these books, The Great Learning, deals
with the cultivation of the person by first rectifying the heart and
then the thoughts. Jen was a term that was used for the
ultimate quality of humanness. It was seen as a level that was
to hard for the ordinary human to achieve. The Chun-tzu was
more approachable as a human could achieve this level in a life
time. The qualities were of a superior man, devoted to study
and neither anxious nor fearful.
One of
the first challenges to face the Confucius scholars came from Qin
Shihauany, 1st Emperor of China. Shihauany formed a large
government network that divided the country into small
counties. The Great Wall of China was constructed for the
protection of the Chinese. The poor were exploited by high
taxes and other forms of government intervention.
Camel hair
brushes were invented for painting of characters on silk and hemp
paper. The procedure soon lead to block printing(6th century),
that allowed major components to be printed. Some of the
technologies emerging from this period were the invention of gun
power, the magnetic compass and a high level of skills in
mathematics.
This was
a period of scholars pushing forward in society by the ability to
read and write. Literacy was viewed as the means to
success.
The institution designed for this
purpose varied from dynasty to dynasty, but from the Tang dynasty on
the imperial examination system remained the principle avenue leading
to officialdom, until its abolition in 1905(Hu C, 1962
p13). High ranking officials integrated the imperial
examination into many parts of the bureaucracy. Although this
system of examinations was held in high and successful regards,
there were problems of corruption. The unfettered operation
of the imperial civil service examination was marred
by cheatingî(Cleverley, 1991, P. 20).
Students who achieved
exceptional grades were in charge of the government exams, and they
would occasionally take bribes. In the areas of mathematics,
law and calligraphy, students could receive a scholarship for
additional education. Children started school at the young age
of three to learn their first Chinese characters. That
encouraged the development of fine motor skills needed to be able to
paint with a brush.
The Song Dynasty introduced
the mass production of printed material. Printing with engraved
blocks on cheap paper made it possible for larger population to
read. Confucius' works became more accessible to the common
people of China. Study played an important role in the lives of
most people. This was the beginning of the turn around to the
earlier Confucian philosophies. Wood statues were carved for
their great teacher and some started to worship Confucius.
Large temples were built to house the thousands of books for
Confucius.
Examination represented an
important role in the livA memorialist in 1043, Fan Zhongyan,
objected that The literati disregarded the important trends and ran
along petty ways, and wanted examinations which would test the
candidates' understanding of leading ideas in the Classics and their
application in government(Cleverley, 1991). Skills like
creativity and cognition were not rewarded.
es of the officials. People
were selected for appointments to office according to their abilities
to speak and write. China had in 1027 A.D. used aids in
medical practice, as evidenced in acupuncture
sketches(Tayy,1998). Charts helped to assist teachers of
acupuncture, so students would be able to place the needle in the
specific part of the body.
The Ming
Dynasty was the final stage of the imperial examination that
perpetuated through the Quing Dynasty. Confucian ideologies
continued to grow. Learning was the expedient to being
successful. Even farmers grew to appreciate the significance of
reading and learning. Sporadically the Confucian ideologies
were looked at in a lackadaisical way. Wang Yangming
(1472-1528) proposed an analogy of child growth similar to that of
the Europeansí Froebel and Pestalozzi: Child nature enjoys
freedom and fears restriction. It may be likened to a plant in
its stage of germination;
left to itself, it will grow, but interfered with, it will wither and
decay. In instructing the child, if his natural inclinations are
stimulated and his innermost self is made happy, there will be
no end to his growth(Cleverly, 1991).
This was
the conclusion of the imperial dynasty of China. Confucianism
was promoted throughout the large chasm of this dynasty.
Examinations, as well as the social implications of Confucianism,
were expressed by Yongzheng Emperor(1723-1735). Man was viewed
as superior, and the human mind controlled the outcome.
The
British and French had begun to increase trade with Chinese through
this period. The British liked the imperial examination system
and adapted it to their educational systems in Britain and
India. The French were very persistent in their promotion of
Christianity. Now the French adopted an aggressive approach to
coercing the Qing government into extending their
ìspiritualî privileges(Zhu Weixheng, 1992). It was
hard for leaders like Ma Xiangbo to watch the French Jesuits
persecute the Chinese for their cultural habits.
The
Jiangnan region influenced society in the seventeenth-centuryin many
ways. Some women of the gentry class were educated by their families,
and itinerant female teachers wrote poetry and formed clubs.
Women of this time period were not allowed to attend government
schools and only on the rare occasion were allowed entrance into
private schools. The illiteracy rate for women was over
95%.
By 1839, Britain was a major world power, and China was part of Britain's plan for growth. Britain, by 1842, had managed to maintain control and persuade five ports and Hong Kong to adopt British culture, and this paved the way for the modern, British educational system in China. The British refused to allow the Chinese to be influenced by pre-existing Chinese philosophies, so the old beliefs were ignored.
Clergy, like the Jesuits, had landed on the shores of China a couple of centuries earlier. In 1724, all alien clergy were expelled. The door did not open to them again until the mid-nineteenth century (Cleverly,1991). It was not until the Protestants had moved into China that modern schooling began.
Missionaries such as Hudson Talyor longed for opportunities for evangelism. Taylorís goal was not to have the Chinese become like English Christians, but to have them become Chinese Christians (http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/glimpses/fortyseven.html). Taylor was credited for his reputation in spreading Christianity to inland China, revising the Chinese New Testament and for his knowledge of medicine.
Other missionaries worked hard to overcome cultural barriers by dressing like the Chinese and showing respect for their knowledge. Missionaries may have sounded at times dismissive of traditional Chinese education and culture, but many of them worked hard and sincerely in what they considered to be interests of the Chinese, perhaps most notably in the field of female education (Sweeting, 1997). Britianís educational policy around the turn of the twentieth centry was leaning towards more of an elitist form of education, but the head of the British Secretary for Colonies pushed for education for all, including the poor.
The Western educational system added flavour to the system because they had mastered the technologies of the time. Vocational schooling played a part in the development of China. Schools that taught technical skills in ship building displayed advanced techniques that were necessary for the survival of their country. Major changes led to the formalization of the educational policies. After the defeat of the Japanese in 1895, the Chinese wanted to mimic the western system of education.
Kang Youiver led The Hundred Day Reform, in 1898 that was the beginning of the first secondary school system and the grade system. Books in Japanese and English were translated to Chinese. The traditional civil examination from Tang Dysanty that relied on memory needed to be replaced by newer methodologies.
Dewey had
traveled through China for a couple of years, lecturing on
philosophies of education. The impact that Dewey had on the
Chinese Education system is still being debated by scholars in
China. Some argued that he had little if any impact, while
others saw a great deal of change. Dewey wrote 40 journals
during his short stay and after returning to America. Jane
Dewey indicated that China was the dearest country to her
fatherís heart, outside his own, the United States.
Dewey had
inspired China to come out of the feudal system of educating into a
modern method or system of educating. Dewey argued that what
nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to
social life. When lecturing in China, Dewey enthusiastically
conveyed his life of education as an agent for social reform to
Chinese educators: ìThe reconstruction of society depends, to
a very great extent, upon the school. The school is the
instrument by which a new society can be built, and through which the
unworthy features of the existing society can be modifiedî(Su
Z, 1996). Chinese intellectuals recognized a need to reform the
educational system. The old Confucian style of learning and the
imperial examination, that emphasized memorization rather than
reason, had been used for two thousand years. This
examination system began in the second century and continued until
1905(Fouts J.T. and Chan J.C.K., 1995).
By the 1900s the old system was being replaced with the Western ideologies. This reform was demonstrated as the May Fourth Movement, which denounced Japanese imperialism, in 1919. Movement toward the ideas and philosophies of the West made this an ideal moment for Dewey to visit China.
The old system was modeled after Japanese military structures. Americans promoted the spirit of democracy, and by extension, educational theories as part of life and facilitating universal education. New methods of teaching centered around the child.
Dewey had a few followers in China who believed in the school as a society and in learning by doing. One of his students who laboured to promote these philosophies in China was Tao Xingzhi. Tao went to United States for graduate studies in 1914 and studied under John Dewey, Paul Monroe and William Kilpatrick, until 1917. Dewey and Monroe had enlightened Tao on their pragmatic views and the illiteracy rates of rural China, that were around 77% in 1921. Tao initiated and participated in mass anti-illiteracy programs aimed at educating the poor and common people, most of them in rural areas(Su Z, 1996). Tao believed that education was for the improvement of society, and through the experience of school, society could grow and flourish.
Tao wanted to reform China in several ways:
- To give all citizens equal opportunities to education.
- To create an environment that would encourage learning and the development of learning.
- T live a democratic life, through experiencing the democratic process.
Tao worked
hard to model the ideologies that Dewey, Monroe and Kilpatrick had
rekindled. In the first seven years after he returned to
China, Tao tried literally to create the Deweyan schools as miniature
democratic societies in the Chinese environment(Su
Z.,1996). The problem was that China needed a different
system, one that was more compatible with the environment of rural
China. Therefore, in his own words, he made Deweyís
doctrine of education ìturn a half somersaultî and
argued for ìsociety of schoolî so as to expand the
horizon of schooling to include more educational materials, more
educational methods, more educational instruments, a larger
educational environment, more students, and more teachers(Su Z.,
1996). Tao Xingzhi, whom the late Chairman Mao Zedong commended
as a ìgreat peopleís educator,î was one of the
most influential educators in modern China(Zeng
Z.,1988).
In a move to increase professional development for educating students, a formal policy was designed to ensure uniformity throughout China. A more structured system of educating was introduced which emphasized clear objectives, science, technologies and vocational and military training to prepare for the global advance in industry.
China was in a state of change following the major transition that took place with the British andChristian organizations. The Chinese were not content with the education or the politic situation in their country. The wealthy seemed to gain the most from the British influence, and China was turning away from British culture. China's neighbouring country, Russia, was boasting a successful economy and an educational system, because of the communist party leadership. China was quick to adopt a communist government as well.
In 1924, the beginning of the movement from a Nationalist to a Communist government in China, the warlords were defeated. Mao was concerned with the education of not just urban people, but rural peasants as well. There is a relatively common Chinese culture directed for centuries by Confucian values underlying much of the country and most recently influenced by Mao and his teaching(Fouts J.T. and Chan J.C.K., 1995,p.524). Communist students were encouraged to be self-taught and to look at education as a lifetime goal. The first goal was to imporve the moral characteristics of the learner. The second priority was technical skills, so learners would be good workers in the future factories and industries. The third educational goal was to prepare learners for the military.
Mao was inspired by Marx and Engelís philosophies of education and government. The idea of ordinary people being at the same class level as the elite sparked an interest in Mao. The older ideologies of education imposed a hierarchical, or pyramidic, system that rewarded only a few scholars. Mao integrated a universal low cost elementary school, so children would not have to work in factories. The country as a whole required educational development because many people were illiterate. Before China was liberated in 1949, the illiteracy rate was over 80 percent(Mingjuan G.,1987).
Education became a central issue when the communists took over in 1949. The Communists who took power in China during 1949 closed the countryís 2200 private schools as education like factories and other units in the economy, came under state control(Kwong J.,1997, p.244). The party wanted to control the educational system, and through it, the social order. By 1952, winter classes had increased by four times the 1949 enrollment for adult learning. Out of the 48 million students in 1952, few were women.
At first, most
schools felt little impact with the change in the
government from the Nationalist to Communist government.
Students noticed minor changes in peoplesí behaviors, like the
rich students stopped bringing cars, and other materials that
displayed wealth, to school. Corporal punishment, which was so
evident with the Japanese instructors, was almost
eliminated.
As the years
progressed with the Communist Chinese Party in power, the Soviet
Union was looked at as a role model, not just as a governing body,
but as an educational model. In the years immediately following
the Communist revolution in China, the Ministry of Education
turned to the Soviet Union for advice and models to emulate(Adamson
B., Morris P., 1997). Lenin looked at literacy as the
foundation of his platform. Schools that the government
controlled judged the learner on the basis of ability, not for
socio-economic status.
Jiangxi Soviet was the targeted area for the communist educational system to begin with. The objectives reflected communist ideals of no material ownership. Students were taught motivational techniques and studying strategies to assist in studying and reviewing material for exams. Military personnel had training in history, politics and current affairs.
Teaching
methods and styles became more uniform, and a plan drawn from Russian
methods, was implemented. Some of the methods that were used
were:
- Simplifying terminology.
- Starting with easy tasks then moving to the harder tasks.
- Using discussion and making the topics interesting to the learner.
- Selecting interesting topics.
- Avoiding pouring knowledge into the students.
China's Communist government was in close alignment with the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union educational system was owned and operated by the people of their country, so the Chinese followed the same pattern. The Chinese government turned to the Soviet Union for common programs that would open the doors for education. The first focus was to influence the socialist ideology and secondly to educate the working force(Adamson B. And Morris P., 1997, p.6). Christian schools could operate with the communist teachers and under strict government control until the end of the Korean War.
In the early
1960ís China rejected the Soviet involvement with the
education system. Many Soviet educators left with short notice
and many projects were left incomplete.
It was the
mandate of the Communist People's government to make China a
literate country. One of the main obstacles was the different
languages and dialects, so educators were to be trained in the
official Chinese language of Mandarin. This was a very
expensive approach and many teachers had problems with the different
dialects, let alone with a new language. Mao thought it was
important that educated people knew different languages.
During the
years 1966 through to 1976, Mao pushed for more political emphasis on
the policies for education by introducing:
- Joint labour education with the academics.
- Communist values and beliefs to be part of the curriculum.
- Alternative administrative procedures for universities, by more influence of politics rather than examinations.
- More educated teachers in the rural and bordering areas of China.
Mao closed down elitist schools and universities for many years, leaving China with only a strong labour force. Teachers' careers were destroyed because knowledge of the subjects were not seen to be as important as the values the teachers held of the government.
After the
Cultural Revolution, schools began to open their doors.
Examinations were brought back into the secondary schools. The
educational values slowly began to recover. Even after the
Cultural Revolution ended, the communist party was still very
influential. Examination played an important role for
advancement into higher levels of education and careers, along with
the influence of the communist party.
Deng Xiaoping delivered a speech to the National Education Conference in April 1978. This address was to promote the need to raise the quality of education, order and discipline, economic developments and the status and quality of teachers. Deng thought the key to the success of education was the teacher. Deng Xiaoping stated that ìeducation undertakings must be geared towards the needs of national economic development. With Dengís blessing, the Chinese Communist Party(CCP) introduced several programs to reform education from the mid-1980s on(Mok, 1997). A new curriculum was introduced that would allow students to have examinations in order to raise the academic standards. Deng like Mencius, grandson of Confucius, saw the importance of using different methods of teaching individual students.
The curriculum was enhanced, so students in secondary education would have more courses that reflected the vocations and demonstrations to simulate a real environment. Subjects were grounded in sound, rich content. The curriculum emphasized a command of pedagogical principles that could be analyzed, discussed and changed if needed.
Teachers were to be educated to a higher level from a recognized institution. Institutions were to be organized and structured to build on moral character, abilities and to give teachers more competence in the subject matter that they taught teach. This structure was in three tiers; upper school or Teacher Training institutes, secondary Graduates or teacher training schools and secondary teacher-training schools.
The organization's
structure of this system was in four levels; The Ministry of
Education, that controlled the Higher Teacher-training Institution,
Bureaux of Education and the Offices of Education held the control
over the rest of the teachers training schools and the Urban
Education. The reorganization of the educational system was to
give teachers higher standards of quality and to localise the subject
matter. In service programs, informal education helped enhance
knowledge. Schools in China generally focused on the five aims of
education:
- Ethic and moral learning.
- Intellectual learning.
- Aesthetic development.
- Physical development.
- Socialization.
Coupled with these aims
is special attention given to the world of work(Fouts J.T. and
Chan J.C.K.,1995, p.528). The key to success in present
reforms may lie in building consciously on the epistemological
reforms of the past(Hayhoe R.,1988). China is an old
country in the terms of culture and has a long history of educating
their people through examinations. In 1988, 230 million people
were still illiterate. The reforms of May 1985, to change
teaching methods had little effect. Some of the changes were
important for the progress of education like:
- Education strategies that aimed at the quality system, and taught by valid educators.
- A nine year timeline that focused first on rural areas and then moved into urban areas.
- A reformed system for vocational and technical education with an emphasis on agriculture and industry.
- Reform of higher level educational institutions, to assist in planning and enrollment of students.
- A well educated contingent of qualified teachers that could increase their education to the master and doctoral levels.
- More textbooks to Universities for higher levels of education.
- A more sophisticated social educational system.
- Cooperation with other countries for scholarships.
Some of the new methodologies that occurred because of the reform are:
- Greater sensitivity to cultural issues and vocational training.
- Increase self-education through correspondence courses, that were self-paced and self-directed.
- Extracurricular development, including technology, for High Schools.
- Development of instructional systems to assist in individual courses.
Deng addressed education and the development of educational research as important as the economy. The identification of higher education will advance the Chinese into the new world of science technology. Deng Xiaoping said that ìEducation should be oriented towards modernization, the world and the future(Mingjuan G., 1987). Theoretical validity bears an important relation to practice. Higher educational research in China pays considerable attention to the improvement of theoretical study(Xing Z.,1987).
The plan for China in the future was to increase the number of students going into higher education by 8% by the year 2000, from 3.5% in 1993. The number of female students had already increased to 34% in 1990. The total enrollment was 2,062,695 with 65% of the students studying in the discipline of science. The World Bank's projects increases in China's higher education between 10%-15% by the year 2000.
Deng Xiaoping has tried hard to relax the tension that was created in Tianamen, by increasing the enrollment for higher education. The plan was revised in February 1993 so more students have been encouraged to advance in their field.
China presently has a weak foundation and framework for higher education. There are still problems of corruption that have slowed progress. Better funding for the poor rural students is desperately needed. China is considering using the private sector to help with the high cost of education.
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