Abstract
The paper examines and analyses the significance of gospel music
as popular culture in the spiritual lives of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christians. It argues that the phenomenal rise of gospel in Kenya
was at its climax in the 1990s, a period that also coincidentally
took place with the liberalization of airwaves and the immense
growth of these churches. The nineties were also a period of difficult
social, political and economic hardships in Kenya and the rise
of gospel music is related to these happenings. Gospel music as
popular culture has become an important segment of youth culture
in Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches in urban areas and is also
a significant expression of youth identity in twenty-first century
Kenya. The paper points out that these churches are the main locus
of gospel music and have facilitated the successful emergence
of social groups such as women, youth and children into public
space as cultural workers who had otherwise been rendered invisible.
It maintains that Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has become
a place where such social groups are contesting religious and
creative space in Kenya’s public culture. The paper
further argues that although there are many attractions to this
form of African Christianity, its main attraction is cultural.
This cultural appeal of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity is
found in the appropriation of popular culture, which is expressed
in music, dance, films, dress code and language. The paper therefore
seeks to understand and link religion with popular culture and
examines how new religious movements fit into the context of popular
culture in Kenya. It maintains that gospel music in Kenya is a
blend of local music with influences from many countries and musical
styles from other parts of the world. The paper also observes
that gospel music represents a valuable entry point into discourses
of contemporary African cultural productions (Chitando 2002).
The study hopes to contribute to the discourses on religion and
public space and religious constructed identities. It argues that
the media has ushered in gospel music and these churches into
public space and has led to a kind of Pentecostalite culture that
has pervaded public culture in Kenya
Gospel Music in Kenya: An Overview
[1] This study examines the evolution and significance of gospel
music in the religious life and spiritual experience of Kenyan
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity and in general public culture.
The paper was informed by the need to understand gospel music
in Kenya that has witnessed a phenomenal growth since the 1990s
to date. Three factors were responsible for this immense growth
of gospel music, and these are, a deteriorating socio-political
and economic environment, the proliferation of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Churches, which witnessed phenomenal growth in the 90s, and the
liberalization of airwaves, which equally took place at the same
time. These three factors ensured the ascendancy and popularity
of gospel music in Kenya that has totally revolutionized the country’s
gospel music scene. Yet despite the immense growth and significance
of gospel music as popular culture, African scholars of religion
have not paid attention to this significant development in Kenya.
[2] The paper approaches gospel music with Christian theological
ideas and examines religion as an integral part of culture, that
is, religion as a cultural phenomenon (Chitando 2002). It focuses
on gospel music as an integral part of these churches and maintains
that these churches are the main locus of gospel music. It contends
that gospel music represents a valuable entry point into discussions
of contemporary African cultural production (Chitando 2002). The
paper also observes that although there are many attractions to
these churches, its main appeal is cultural. African scholars
particularly in the area of religion have not paid sufficient
attention to religion as popular culture and as a cultural phenomenon
in Kenya and this paper hopes to fill in this glaring gap.
[3] The paper also attempts to capture the impact of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity on musical performances and highlights the various
groups of cultural workers who have benefited from the phenomenal
growth of gospel music (Chitando 2002). It undertakes an analysis
of the context in which gospel music was able to thrive and links
this music to social, political and economic developments in Kenya.
It also highlights the neglected area of religion and the construction
of religious identities. It maintains that gospel music is one
of the main ways in which African Christian identities are being
negotiated and constructed (Chitando 2002). The paper therefore
seeks to understand the various musical styles, tunes and other
borrowed elements, adaptations and creativity that can be discerned
in gospel music in Kenya. The paper also examines the appropriation
of externally derived musical styles, foreign adaptations and
dance routines in a local context and seeks to interpret them
(Chitando 2002).
[4] The paper also examines the role of mass media in the evolution
of gospel music and argues that the mass media have played a significant
role in the development of gospel music in Kenya. The proliferation
of these churches coupled with media technologies has ushered
in a new chapter in Kenyan gospel music in particular and popular
culture generally. Gospel music has grown in popularity and is
played on radio, television, on the streets, churches, shops and
even bars at ear-deafening levels thanks to modern technology.
It is sold in markets and commented on magazines and newspapers
and indeed underpins an entire recording business (Gifford 1998).
This is a remarkable social and cultural phenomenon and these
new churches are an integral part of it (Gifford 1998). Thus the
mass media have been instrumental in the evolution of popular
culture while Pentecostal Churches have revolutionized gospel
music altogether. This music has become so central to these churches
that the first thing a Pentecostal/Charismatic church will save
for is its public address system and the latest musical instruments
in music technology. Indeed one of the greatest attractions to
these churches is their live and entertaining music and their
state of the art public address system. Definitely, the music
in these churches is without doubt a significant element in the
whole experience (Gifford 1998).
[5] Although gospel music has been around for a long time, the
1990s marked its zenith and immense growth. The 1990s was epochal
in the history of gospel music in Kenya as it coincided with other
developments such as deteriorating social, political and economic
circumstances and the liberalization of the airwaves. The rise
of this new sector of African Christianity has greatly increased
the popularity of gospel music in general and choral music in
particular (Paterson 1995). Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity
has become one of the most dominant Christian constituencies in
Africa today, and the movement has grown significantly over the
last two decades. The movement has become a significant expression
of Christianity on the continent and according to Harvey Cox,
the movement is reshaping religion in the twenty first century
(Cox 1996).
[6] Defining Pentecostalism is not easy, given its diverse
manifestations and characteristics. However, despite the visible
differences and diversities, there are still certain commonalities
and similar features that can be identified in the world of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity in Africa (Droogers 2002). Among these features are
speaking in tongues, divine healing, exuberant singing, dancing
and clapping of hands and the so-called prosperity theology that
they all endeavor to promote (Droogers 2002). Nevertheless, Pentecostalism
is better understood as multifarious movements concerned primarily
with the experience of the working of the Holy Spirit and the
practices of spiritual gifts (Anderson 2002). Ghanaian Pentecostal
scholar Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, defines Pentecostalism as that “stream
of Christianity that emphasizes personal salvation in Christ as
a trans-formative experience brought about by the Holy Spirit
and in which such pneumatic phenomena as speaking in tongues,
prophecies, visions, healing, miracles, signs and wonders in general
are sought, accepted, valued and consciously encouraged among
members as evidence of the active presence of God’s Spirit” (Kwabena
2005). Charismatic Christianity is restricted to Pentecostal renewal
movements that operate within historic mission denominations or
mainline churches (Kwabena 2005). This paper adopts Kwabena’s
definition of these churches.
[7] Pentecostal/Charismatic movements have mushroomed in many
different shapes and sizes all over the world and Kenya in particular.
Kenya has evolved a strong Pentecostal/Charismatic tradition over
the last few decades. The numerous air-rallies, crusades, revival
gatherings, miracle centers, healing ministries, single ladies
ministries and more recently televangelism, are evidence of this
fact (Shorter and Njiru 2003). Pentecostal/Charismatic churches
and ministries as they are commonly called have mushroomed in
almost every part of the country but more especially in urban
centres. The emergence of a global cultural system as a result
of social and cultural development could, to a large extent, explain
the growth of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity in Kenya. Globalization
has affected religion in a big way, particularly in the emergence
of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches and popular culture,
particularly popular music. The mechanisms of the processes of
globalization are evident in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
These are the use of the mass media to disseminate its ideas,
a social organization that promotes internationalism through travel
and networking, conferences and mega churches that function like
international corporations and a global culture that transcends
locality and displays striking similarities in different parts
of the world (Anderson 2005; Coleman 2000; Parsitau 2006).
[8] Examples of Pentecostal/Charismatic churches in Kenya are
the Deliverance Churches of Kenya, Neno Evangelism Ministries,
Kuna Nuru Gizani Ministries, The Happy Churches of Kenya, Faith
Evangelistic Ministries, Jesus Celebration Centre Ministries,
The Redeemed Gospel Church, Nairobi Pentecostal Church; Jesus
is Alive Ministries and Winners Chapel International Ministries,
among others. Pentecostalism in Kenya currently constitutes a
major social movement and commands thousands of followers. This
paper focuses on those churches that begun in the seventies and
gained momentum in the nineties to date. The Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches have been the locus of gospel music and have greatly
revolutionized gospel music scene in Kenya. These churches have
also invaded public space and have had a significant impact on
general public culture.
[9] It is in the quest to understand gospel music in the spiritual
lives of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity that this
paper finds its justification. The paper grapples with the following
questions: What is gospel music? What is its place and significance
in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches? How have these churches revolutionized
gospel music scene in Kenya? Who are the team players in the gospel
music scene? What social, political and economic factors have
led to the evolution of gospel music? What are the dominant themes
discernable in this music? What is the role of the media in ushering
in gospel music? Is the music contemporary, current, foreign or
purely traditional African music? How has it invaded public space?
What identities are discernable? The paper will wrestle with these
questions in order to understand the impact and significance of
gospel music in Kenya.
Gospel Music in Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches
[10] The Pentecostal/Charismatic Movement is known for the significant
and central role it gives to gospel music in all aspects of the
lives of its adherents. This music has been described as fervent,
emotional, spiritual, dynamic, exuberant and quite entertaining.
Indeed music is an important feature of Pentecostal/Charismatic
worship and church services. Music particularly gospel music is
tied to Pentecostal/Charismatic church history and is central
to their religious and spiritual experiences. The place and role
of gospel music in these churches cannot therefore be gain-stated.
Gospel music occupies a pivotal place in the spiritual lives of
Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians and these churches are
the main locus of music performances, as the creation of a new
social identity is one of their major preoccupation (Chitando
2002). Gospel music also plays a key role in serving as a powerful
and meaningful symbol of identity, functioning as an avenue for
the expression and mediation of conflict (Manuel 1988,16). Thus
music occupies a central place in the spiritual experiences of
the Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians.
[11] But what exactly is gospel music? Like many other religious,
cultural and social phenomena, scholars have grappled with the
task of defining gospel music. We will attempt some of definition
here. In many parts of the world, the word gospel music is used
to refer to musical products closely associated with Christianity.
Nigerian scholar Mathews Ojo notes that though the term gospel
music is really too sweeping, it could be taken to refer to a
distinct kind of music composed and rendered by men and women
who call themselves Christians and who refer to their music as “ministration
of the good news in songs: (Ojo 1998, 211). This paper adopts
Oyo’s definition of gospel music without getting into various
definitional debates. It concurs with Chitando’s observation
that understands gospel music as one that is ‘laden with
Christian themes and performed by people who regard themselves
as Christians with a mission to preach the word of God through
music’ (Chitando 2002). In Kenya, gospel music has proliferated
greatly with the proliferation of Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches.
The phenomenal growth of these churches in the last few decades
has brought about a revival of emphasis on praise and worship
in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic scene and religious life generally.
These churches have also brought about freedom in worship, joyful
singing and dancing, clapping of hands, physical expressions of
praise accompanied by loud and powerful musical instruments and
an acceptance of a wide variety of music styles and tunes. Pentecostal/Charismatic
worship services are characterized by emotional singing, shouting,
dancing, leaping, and clapping of hands.
[12] The style of worship in these churches is exuberant and exciting,
with a strong emphasis on singing, dancing and the use of popular
music. Indeed one of the greatest attractions of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic
movements is their lively and entertaining music and dance, which
is usually performed by church praise and worship teams (Gifford
1998). The praise and worship team is central to these churches
as singing and worship is an important aspect of the service.
The services in these churches are made up of three parts: the
music, which includes praise and worship, the Sermon and the offering
service (Gifford 1998). Although the choir and soloist participate,
the singing is participatory and normally involves the entire
congregation led by a choir or worship leader and backed by a
team of instrumentalists. To use Gifford’s words, these
services are exuberant and exhilarating (Gifford 1998, 146). Most
songs are normally in English the language of modernity and in
most cases they are translated to the national language Kiswahili
and an assortment of other ethnic dialects. These churches do
not use the traditional hymnbooks, a feature that sets them a
part from mainline Christian music. As Gifford observes no hymnbooks
are required as the words are simple and repetitious, and one
hymn can be repeated for up to twenty minutes (Gifford 1998, 146).
This music is not only current and in tune with what is going
on globally on the world music scene, but it is also without doubt
a significant element in the whole experience (Gifford 1998, 146).
[13] Hollenweger observes that a major attraction of these churches
is their music and liturgy. He points out that it is spontaneity
and enthusiasm which, rather than leading to an absence of liturgy,
produces flexible oral liturgies memorized by the Pentecostal
congregations (Hollenweger 1997). Pentecostal/Charismatic church
services and their music are usually emotional and enthusiastic
(Anderson 2000). Describing the emotions stirred up by music is
a difficult task because words fall short. However, music has
such abilities to stir up emotions that it precedes the messages
in many of these churches (Anderson 2000). The church choir usually
leads the congregation in such emotional songs to “usher
in” the presence of the Holy Spirit and to prepare people
for the sermons. It is common to see people crying, falling and
displaying strange feelings and pneumatic phenomena during worship
services. There is no doubt that the flourishing of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has had a significant impact on the evolution and
success of gospel music in Kenya. These churches are the locus
of gospel music and have totally revolutionized Kenya’s
gospel music scene.
Gospel Music and Youth
[14] There is no doubt that the Pentecostal/Charismatic style
of worship is a big factor of attraction to many Kenyans, particularly
the youth. The services in these churches are lively, refreshing
and definitely geared to meet the needs of the modern Kenyan.
The Pentecostal/Charismatic churches appeal to the youth most
and their music is a big factor of attraction. Gifford asserts
that Pentecostal gospel music is particularly “exhilarating
in a way that the mainline churches cannot match” (Gifford
1998). He observes that the “contrast is particularly evident
in Methodist and Anglican churches where it is not possible to
sing any hymns composed this century (Gifford 1998). But it is
not just that Charismatic worship is livelier, it is that due
to their social economic circumstances most young people have
no money to go to nightclubs, discos or concerts for their entertainment” (Gifford
1998). Instead of spending scarce money on discos and nightclubs,
teenagers now go to church to dance, entertain themselves and
meet other youth. These churches are therefore creating a new
expression of culture (Gifford 1998).
[15] In these churches, there exists a very active youth wing
and numerous social occasions for the young where they can be
creative and entertained. Consequently there are special events,
mixing traditional gospel music with Western style music such
as rap, hip-hop, jazz, reggae, and African music/dance that are
all consumed and accepted in these churches (Gifford 1998). These
churches have therefore become like recreational places for the
youth in Kenya. David Maxwell correctly observes that the born
again movements offers African youth, who are the most vulnerable
groupings in Africa’s contemporary social and economic malaise,
an alternative pattern of life (Maxwell 1998). It provides them
with purpose and empowerment in a world where secular ideologies
have failed and national identities lose their salience (Maxwell
1998).
[16] These churches are creating a new expression of culture and
youth identity constructed around religion. Every Sunday in major
Pentecostal/Charismatic churches such as the Deliverance church
will stage an evening, which is part concert, part service and
performing will be its own best choirs or soloists along with
several new local but professional gospel artists (Gifford 1998).
These artists also stage performances for famous and popular North
American and European televangelists who come to Kenya to preach
and hold crusades. Gospel music is definitely an important element
of the Pentecostal/Charismatic church crusades (Gifford 1998).
Thus, the evolution of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has
altered Kenya’s soundscape ushered in a Pentecostal type
of popular culture. This is the cultural attractiveness of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity to youth who, as previously said, aspire to a western
consumerist culture. The attraction of the youth to these churches
is found in the increasing appropriation and consumption of popular
culture. This has been made possible by modern means of communication
and technology that have become an important feature in these
churches (Parsitau 2005). The appropriation of media technologies
in these churches allows the youth to consume popular culture
indiscriminately. For example, the youth in these churches imitate
North American celebrities, particularly Afro-Americans in their
dress, “bling bling” (an Afro-American slang for an
assortment of jewelry won by the youth), haircuts, hairdos, language,
music and dance.
[17] International gospel musicians, especially those from North
America, have also become fairly popular in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches and their songs are well known and appropriated. Kenyan
Pentecostal/Charismatic televangelists in their many international
travels buy lots of gospel music tapes from North America and
Europe and stock them in their bookstores together with other
religious literature. Their church choirs are therefore constantly
familiar with new trends in gospel music in the rest of the world.
Gospel music from internationally renown artists such as Ron Kenoly,
Alvin Slaughter, Don Moen, Lenny Leblanc, Kirk Franklin, Cece
Winans and many others are sung by Pentecostal/Charismatic church
choirs. Much of the gospel music sung in, for example, Deliverance
Church Nakuru is heavily borrowed from the above-mentioned artists
and others. The music consumed in these churches is therefore
western or heavily western influenced and incorporates foreign
styles such as hip-hop, rap, reggae, country and others (Gifford
1998). The songs are normally performed in English and translated
into Kiswahili. The adoption of new styles and tunes has not been
immune from criticism. Many critics of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches hold a strong view that this music is excessively western
and related to the processes of globalization that have popularized
Western values, particularly popular music However
despite the criticisms, one can also appreciate the creativity
and sophistication that have been shown by Kenyan youth (Chitando
2002). I concur with Chitando who observes that gospel music has
been an avenue through which young people assert their rights
to be seen, heard and recognized as cultural workers in their
own right (2002).
Gospel Music as Contemporary
Music
[18] Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has always considered
its music to be current and contemporary. Their music also reflects
contemporary styles such as gospel reggae, jazz, rap, hip-hop,
soul, and rhythm and blues. This is especially popular with the
youth who are the main consumers of this music because it is current
and appeals to them. According to Alvan Gatitu, a young Gospel
artist who has three CDs to his name, gospel music is appealing
to the youth because it is current, contemporary and is in tune
with the times they live in (Gatitu, interview 2006). In other
words it reflects the cultural realities of their times. Besides
the current, contemporary and dynamic music in these churches,
the fashion and dress code are also modern, trendy and appeals
to the youth. Kwabena correctly observes that the Pentecostal/Charismatic
Churches have a relaxed fashion conscious dress code, which is
particularly attractive to the youth (Kwabena 2005). But this
relaxed dress and fashion code has however attracted a lot of
controversy and criticisms against these churches with many critics
claiming that Pentecostal/Charismatic gospel music and the youth
dress code are gradually becoming a fad driven by westernization,
popular culture and foreign clinches (Kariuki 2005). The dressing
code has also been criticized as too worldly, and un-Christian.
Actually by looking at the dressing code of young gospel artists
in Kenya, the trouser suit, the “bling bling” and
other popular styles, it becomes very difficult to draw the line
between secular music and gospel music (Kariuki 2005). Also, the
boundaries between religion, entertainment and popular culture
are becoming increasingly blurred (Meyer 2002).
[19] This has been the main bone of contention from the critics
of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches. But Pentecostal church
leaders defend the music and dress of the youth by arguing that
they befit the cultural reality of their time and that the youth
are simply celebrating the times they are living in. They argue
that the youth should not be constrained by unnecessary church
traditions and old fashion views. Pentecostal/Charismatic church
leaders and preachers are of the view that there is need to understand
and appreciate youth and the times they live in. After all, the
reality is that Kenyan youth like others in Africa are at the
centre of the global discourse on culture and music that has been
ushered in by processes of globalization, particularly cultural
globalization. Today Kenyan popular music, secular or gospel is
slowly becoming a global phenomenon accompanied by technological
innovations and a lucrative recording industry. The arrival of
better and more easily accessible instrumentation and recording
facilities is continuing to strengthen and diversify the Kenyan
gospel music scene and there is no doubt that the new Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches have influenced the direction that this music is assuming.
Thus these churches endeavor to forge a new identity inspired
by popular culture.
[20] Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have attempted to bridge
the gap between the generations by allowing the youth to go contemporary
in their music and cultural creativity. These churches have embraced
the latest electronic gadgets such as the electric guitar, electric
keyboards and sophisticated electronic sound systems. Herein lies
contemporary Christian music, which has had far-reaching consequences
for this type of African Christianity, and which has also stirred
controversy and aroused resistance from mainline churches especially.
There is also the influence of Christian artists and writers who
use popular musical forms and ideas such as rock, rap, jazz, hip-hop
and gospel reggae. The fusion of gospel music happened alongside
modern trends in Kenyan popular music (Chitando 2002). On a smaller
but perhaps more effective scale, television stations have helped
to sustain this trend. Because of the limited availability of
local programmes, enthusiastic station managers provide generous
airtime to foreign and local celebrities in the world of music.
Thus The Beats, Channel O, Da Vibe and The Stomp, are
all music programmes that bring all manner of popular music to
the Kenyan youth. This in turn increases awareness of new directions
in popular music in Europe, the United States and other parts
of the world. This has made gospel music dynamic and contemporary,
yet it has not lost its distinctive Kenyan identity. This is because
though the youth have incorporated and appropriated other foreign
musical styles, they also use vernacular languages and lyrics.
Roy Smith Mwaita popularly known as Rafftone, one of the most
successful gospel artists raps in his Luyha dialect. His song Tsinyanga
Tsiwere (“Days are Over”) is a popular
hit. This type of creativity shows that music is dynamic not static,
and that gospel artists are always seeking for new styles to appeal
to their audience. The youth in Kenyan are simply reinventing
themselves in exciting and cutting age ways.
Let the Marginalized
Sing: Women and Children in Gospel Music Scene
[21] Gospel music has also ushered in new social groups that have
been perceived as marginalized into the country’s public
scene. These are the women, particularly young professional women
and young children. Some of these children are as young as five
while others are in their preteens. The emergence and use of children’s
bands and singing groups has become a popular phenomenon in Kenyan
gospel music scene and the Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have
helped in their emergence. This is because these churches have
helped propagate the notion that gospel music is sacred and acceptable.
It is now common to see gospel artists sing alongside young children
or use them in their singing groups and bands. For instance, the
group Maximum Melodies, winners of a Kora award in South Africa
in 2005, is composed of mainly young children and a few youth.
They have formed a popular children band called Maximum Melody
Kids. Other gospel artists such as Esther Wahome and Emachichi
have also sung along with children. These artists appropriate
new styles to appeal to younger audience and children to appeal
to older generations. Most parents are comfortable with their
children singing and dancing gospel music which is perceived as
sacred rather than secular music which is perceived as an-Christian.
This is a radical departure from the past where many parents were
uncomfortable with their children embracing the arts that were
not taken seriously then. Instead most parents preferred and encouraged
their children to embrace carreers such as law, engineering, teaching
and medicine (Chitando 2002).
[22] The success of gospel music has facilitated the acceptance
of gospel music by parents and society thus allowing youth and
children to sing and embrace the arts. Gospel music also helps
sacralise certain attitudes, styles and dances. It also seeks
to purify popular culture and has introduced the concept of sacred
and good music and dance as opposed to secular music that is viewed
as immoral and unacceptable. Good music and dance as opposed to
bad music emerged and certain dances and styles were justified
as good and acceptable as long as the music and dance is Christian.
The ideology that gospel music is tied to Christian evangelism
has also facilitated the emergence of children’s and youth
music groups (Chitando 2002).
[23] A strong feature of Kenyan gospel music scene is the place
and significance of female gospel singers. Gospel music, particularly
in Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches, has facilitated the emergence
of successful female artists in the gospel music industry. The
list is endless: Esther Wahome, Joan Wairimu, Jemimah Thiong’o,
Neema Ntaalel, Angela Chibalonza, Naomi Nyongesa, Mary Atieno,
Mrs. Mwaura, Mrs. Jefwa, Mary Wambui, Nancy Torome and many others.
These women have become an integral part of Kenyan gospel music
scene and they appear to outshine the male gospel artists. Kenyan
Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have opened several opportunities
to women from leadership to the arts. Ruth Marshall observes that
young women find in born again communities opportunities for constructing
space where they can move with relative freedom and dignity (Marshall
1992, 22). In this sense, female gospel artists are contesting
their own space in a predominantly patriarchal Kenyan society.
Writing about the gospel music scene in Nigeria, Mathew Ojo observes
that more women have found gospel music as a potent means of enhancing
self-expression and self-determination (Ojo 1998, 222-23). Hence
gospel music has empowered women, youth and children and has created
many job opportunities for them. Gospel music has therefore ushered
in these groups of the marginalized into public and cultural spaces
and has empowered them economically and culturally. Though it
has been a bumpy road given the general criticisms they have endured,
their emergence and dominance in the gospel scene is a confirmation
of their desire to contest religious and cultural spaces in a
patriarchal and gerontocratic Kenyan society.
Dominant Themes in Gospel
Music
[24] Gospel artists in Kenya address issues such as HIV/AIDS,
sexual abuse, corruption, drug abuse, prosperity and economic
hardships and attempt to provide solutions to these issues in
their music. Songs such Kuna Dawa (“There is Medicine”) by
Esther Wahome and Kunywa Maji ya Uzima (“Drink the
Water of Life”) by Joan Wairimu, and Vuta Pumz (“take
a break” from sexual indulgence to avoid HIV/Aids infections),
by the Longombas’ brothers Christian and Lovi, attempt to
address a host of issues from the threat of HIV/Aids to how to
live positively with the virus and a host of other problems. Esther
Wahome’s Kuna Dawa is as frequently heard in pubs
across the country as it is in Christian churches. Jemmima Thiong’o’s
hit Mwenye Baraka Zote is a proclamation of divine ability
to provide for all spiritually and materially. Henrie Mutuku and
David Ngubuini, both winners of Kora Awards and with several CDs
to their names, sing about a host of social issues. This demonstrates
that the youth are sensitive to what goes on around them (Chitando
2002) and they attempt to become part of the solution. The emergence
of gospel music especially in the nineties coupled with the dominant
themes discernable in gospel music is a pointer to harsh socio-political
and economic, challenges facing Kenyans. The nineties marked a
period of political uncertainty and activism in the country’s
history, while death from HIV/AIDS was at its zenith. Thousands
died from the disease as poverty and corruption bit the ordinary
Kenyans hard. Hence, many gospel artists composed songs to encourage,
console and comfort and attempt to bring solace to a disillusioned
people.
Gospel Music as Popular Culture
in Kenya
[25] In the last ten years or so, the place and role of both popular
culture and Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has expanded
in Kenyan society. This type of African Christianity, especially
the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant, has become increasingly prominent
in the media, expounding a whole new type of popular culture (Meyer
2002; Parsitau 2006). Some scholars have called this culture Pentecostalite
culture (Meyer 2002; Parsitau 2006). A whole new popular culture
has evolved around radio and television consisting of media personalities,
review magazines and live shows (Meyer 2002; Parsitau 2006). At
the same time, the new media technologies have totally revolutionized
worship and gospel music in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
The evolution of new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches has ushered
in a new chapter in Kenyan gospel music scene and general popular
culture. It is in these churches that gospel music has found new
expression and consumption. The first thing a new Pentecostal/Charismatic
church will save for is its public address system and the latest
music technology. Thus electronic instruments have become a common
feature of many Pentecostal/Charismatic church movements. It is
in the context of using modern means of communication that these
churches have been responsible for the upsurge of gospel music
and popular culture in Kenya (Chitando 2002; Parsitau 2006). The
Pentecostal/Charismatic voice, which is aired through such media
ministries, has inspired a mass mediated popular culture that
has become quite popular with the younger generation (Chitando
2002; Parsitau 2006).
[26] Popular culture consists primarily of the stuff of everyday
life (Brown 1978). It is mass-produced, popular, immediately accessible
and entertaining (Apondo 2005). In Kenya, popular culture comprises
a complex of distinctive expressions of life experiences and has
come to occupy a significant place in the lives of the youth who
are its primary consumers. It is therefore an important aspect
of the Kenyan youth and the mass media has been instrumental in
its evolution. The most visible carriers of popular culture in
Kenya include music, films, fashion and language. But the greatest
carrier of popular culture in Kenya is probably popular music,
which has become the focal point of youth recreational and spiritual
activities (Apondo 2005). Popular music encompasses a wide range
of styles of both local and international origin (Paterson 1995).
Perhaps except for sports, popular music, secular or gospel, is
undoubtedly the most conspicuous carrier of this culture.
[27] Popular culture has evolved in modern Kenya and is fairly
uniformly distributed at least in major cities, towns and regions
and the youth are the primary consumers of this culture. Most
of today’s popular culture is mass-produced and is disseminated
through the mass media. Through radio and television, musicians
and music fans, particularly young people, have seemingly unlimited
access to music from many different parts of the world. Popular
culture, especially music, gospel or secular, has ushered in a
new celebrity culture in Kenya, with similar patterns to American
celebrity culture. This celebrity culture is therefore assuming
great importance in the Kenyan media scene, particularly among
the young artists. The mass media’s depiction of American
celebrities has caught up with Kenyan gospel and secular artists
who now ape the American celebrities in dress, fashion, hairstyles, bling
bling and black American slang which is now quite current
with the Kenyan youth. The influences of African- American youth
culture are apparent in the musical styles and some adopted names
(Chitando 2003). Many gospel and secular artists are now rapping
after black American celebrities and imitating them in fashion,
tattoos and hairdos. In fact, the American celebrities have become
romanticized images whose clothes, jewelry and other accessories,
names and acronyms become instant fashion. Gospel music also encompasses
a wide range of styles of both local and international origin
(Paterson 1995).
[28] Local gospel artists are given a fair amount of airtime and
rating on both the print and electronic media. Although gospel
music in Kenya has been around for a long time, the 1990s saw
a great deal more western influence and the adoption of new styles
and tunes such as reggae, rap, hip-hop, soul, rhythm and blues,
jazz and Afro-fusion, that have swung into the Kenyan gospel music
scene. Rap and hip-hop are borrowed from the Afro-American influence,
reggae from the Caribbean, country from America and Lingala and
Soukous from central Africa. Local gospel rappers have suddenly
assumed these styles and tunes. For example, Angela Chibalonza,
a Congolese gospel artist based in Kenya, sings in Congolese styles,
tunes and dance. Gospel artists such as Rafftone and the Gospel
Fathers are more hip-hop based while S.K Blue sings gospel reggae.
The youth especially have embraced this latest phenomenon and
these artists have become household names in Kenyan youth culture.
Secular tunes and dance that are learned from global networks
are also heavily borrowed and incorporated by gospel artists and
vice versa. Thus, the difference between secular and gospel music
has become increasingly blurred in terms of styles and dance.
This has created a lot of controversy, with some people maintaining
that Christian worship has lost its meaning due to excessive music
that erodes the element of solemn worship (Father Maloba, Interview).
But while complains were raised about foreign tunes, styles and
dance, these artists continue to do well in terms of money and
lifestyles.
[29] Some music is, nonetheless, genuinely Kenyan with local rhythms,
tunes and styles, while some is more western. This new wave of
gospel music is creating a form of Kenyan music that focuses on
traditional elements with the many external influences to produce
something new and interesting (Paterson 1995). Kenyan gospel music
has therefore come of age, incorporating new styles, tunes, synthesis
and acculturation. It has also become highly developed thanks
to the proliferation of thousands of new Christian movements especially
of the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant. The attraction of the
youth to these churches is found in the increasing appropriation
and consumption of popular culture. This has been made possible
by modern means of communication and technology that are an important
feature in these churches. The appropriation of media technologies
in these churches allows the youth to consume popular culture
indiscriminately. The content of this culture, especially the
music, is contentious. Many critics of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches hold a strong view that this music is excessively western
and related to the processes of globalization which have popularized
western values, particularly popular music, at the expense of
traditional African music. The styles should, however, be understood
as forming part of popular culture in Kenya. It represents the
creative interplay between local traditional music, Christian
influences and global musical trends (Chitando 2002). The appropriation
of various musical styles, however, illustrates the complexity
underlying contemporary African artistic production (Chitando
2002).
Gospel Music in the
Kenyan Media Scene
[30] Until the early 1990s, the government largely controlled
the Kenyan media. The Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) TV
and Radio which are owned by the government mainly served a strong
political, educational and developmental purpose. The early nineties,
however, ushered in a period of privatisation and liberalization
of the airwaves that gave way to a rapidly evolving private media
scene (Parsitau 2006). Since then, the Kenyan media scene has
drastically changed and privately owned commercial FM, TV stations
and cable providers have mushroomed rapidly thus radically altering
the country’s soundscape and mediascape. Kenyan TV now consists
of eleven Channels: Kenyan Television Network (KTN), Nation TV
(NTV), TBN Family TV, Sky TV/TV Africa, Kenya Broadcasting Corporation
(KBC), Citizen TV, Metro TV, Sauti ya Rehema (SAYARE),
and Channel Five TV. Family TV is satellite TV channel and the
main Christian channel, sponsored by America’s Trinity Broadcasting
Network (TBN) and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). This main
Christian channel mostly airs religious programmes, and foreign
televangelists from North America such as Benny Hinn, Joel Osteen,
John Hagee, Kenneth Copeland, T. D Jakes, Myles Monroe, Paula
White and Joyce Meyer dominate the programming probably because
they are the main sponsors. However, the channel also airs local
religious programmes, particularly live messages and sermons from
local televangelists such as Bishop Margaret Wanjiru, Mark Kariuki,
Pius Muiru, John Ng’ang’a, Wilfred Lai, J.B. Masinde
and many others. It also airs foreign and local gospel music.
[31] When television became a popular medium of communication
in the last few decades, Pentecostal/Charismatic churches seized
the opportunity to speak directly to the public. The new sector
of African Christianity in Kenya, the new Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches, is distinguished for its media awareness and the increasing
appropriation of media technologies (Parsitau 2005). From the
1990s to date, gospel music has appeared on television screens
and become very popular. For example, The Stomp is a Pentecostal
musical programme that features both local and international gospel
artists and is very popular with the Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christians. The advent of satellite TV and cable TV such as family
media has clearly impacted on gospel music in Kenya. Cable TV
together with satellite broadcasting features religious programmes,
particularly gospel music, and airs them to many urbanites and
links up local events to the global world of Pentecostalism. Music
is a vital ingredient in all these efforts.
[32] The liberalization of airwaves in the early 1990s also led
to the explosion of FM radio stations. There are about 21 -one
FM stations with four of these owned by religious groups, especially
those of the Pentecostal/Charismatic variety. These are Family
FM which reaches about 85% of Kenyans throughout the country,
Jesus is Lord Radio, based in Nakuru and covering major towns
in the expansive Rift Valley Province, Baraka FM and Biblia Husema
Studios which both reach a significant number of Kenyans, and
Hope FM. Hope FM is owned by the Nairobi Pentecostal Church (Valley
road) and airs religious programmes, particularly gospel music.
Opportunities for music outreach through media ministries, especially
radio, are abundant, and Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches use
music as part of their media ministries. Radio broadcasting has
long been popular with Pentecostal/Charismatic churches. Most
Pentecostal Churches are now involved in radio broadcasting. The
list of individual or church related radio broadcasts, particularly
gospel music programmes, is endless, e.g.,: Sing and
Shine, Gospel Hour, Joy Bringers, Songs of
Praise, Music You Believe In and many more. In shops,
private homes, public transport, and even in bars, gospel music
competes for airspace and recognition. These Christian radio stations
ensure that gospel music, local and international, is played round
the clock. Gospel music in Kenya has become a significant element
in Kenya’s soundscape. Yet scholars have made little mention
of gospel’s obvious importance in Kenyan society. The relationship
between Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity and the media in
Kenya has ushered in these churches into public space.
[33] Kenya has vibrant print media and numerous newspapers, magazines
and tabloids, religious and secular, are available. The print
media now have local celebrity corners or celebrity gossip in
many newspapers and magazines that are popular with youth and
young children, teens and pre-teens, for example, Buzz, Tickles,
Pulse and Young Nation, to mention just a few. Religious papers
and magazines have also grown greatly. Most Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches publish their own literature and magazines, hence the
emergence of numerous religious imprints. These are The Eagle,
Revival Springs, Integrity, The Christian Lawyer and others.
Gospel music is also claiming its place in the print media as
gospel music and ratings are given significant coverage.
[34] Developments in Information Technology (IT) in Kenya have
also helped to create awareness and availability of music at the
touch of a button. Access to the internet is growing rapidly and
cyber cafes are opening up in major urban centres. Many Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches have gone online too, and many of these churches have
websites of their own. These sites are accessible to congregations
and other audiences at the touch of a button and are usually displayed
on television screens at the end of every televised message. This
usually targets a growing number of “cyber-worshippers,” especially
the youth who are into modern information technology. The internet
is the “in-thing” in Kenya today, especially among
young generations who constitute the largest membership of Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches. Through the internet, youth especially download the
latest gospel music and are constantly aware of what is going
on in the world of gospel music. These churches are using the
internet as an avenue of evangelism by offering biblical teachings,
gospel music and other religious materials online. Locally, web
designers are cashing in on the churches’ embrace of new
technologies and create eye-catching sites for these churches.
The churches and Christian organizations that have already launched
their websites include, The Bible Society of Kenya; www.forministry.com;
Jesus Is Alive Ministries of Bishop Margaret Wanjiru; www.jiam.org;
Deliverance Church (www.deliverancechurchkenya.org); Family TV
at www.familykenya.com.
[35] Kenya has therefore witnessed the emergence of a vibrant
media and communication scene since the liberalization of airways
in the early nineties. Christian programmes, particularly
gospel music dominates the Christian media while Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches buy a significant amount of airtime in the country’s
private media houses. By playing the latest audio, video and CD
cassettes from various gospel groups in the country, the media
introduce the latest Christian music to the public. The dominance
of Christian programmes on the media scene has had an overall
impact on the popularity of gospel music, which has really flourished
in this favourable environment. Thus a vibrant mass media culture
is emerging from Kenya with indigenous funding and initiative,
although heavily inspired by their US counterparts, copy styles
and tie into global Charismatic mass media patterns (Meyer 2003).
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity is a media obsessed type
of Christianity and their proliferation has had a significant
impact on the evolution of gospel music.
Singing for Christ or Money: The Economic Significance
of Gospel Music
[36] Gospel music success and popularity has not been a smooth
ride for local artists who have been subjects of intense criticism
and sometimes ridicule. One of the major concerns of the public
is whether gospel artists sing for Christ or for money. This concern
is enhanced by the fact that a number of secular artists have
crossed over from secular music to gospel music thereof giving
the impression that gospel music is well paying. The mushrooming
of recording houses and music production has propagated these
criticisms too as an entire recording business has emerged. A
celebrity culture has equally evolved as is manifested by changed
status and lifestyles of gospel artists, who display an affluent
outlook, wear designer clothes and drive the latest car models.
[37] Many Kenyans are therefore of the view that a significant
number of gospel artists are in the business because of economic
and financial gains while a few are in it because they are talented
artists who sing to propagate the Christian message of salvation.
Some gospel artists deny these claims and dismiss them as malicious
and baseless although most of them do not deny that they have
benefited economically and financially from gospel music as is
evident by the changed lifestyles. Esther Wahome argues that her
life as a gospel artist is not as glamorous as many people think.
She claims that in most cases she is not able to meet the daily
needs of her family because the returns from her music are not
as well paying as popular belief would have it. She blames the
low returns on pirating, which she says is the single most serious
challenge facing artists, gospel or secular in the country (Esther
Wahome, interview). Christian, one of the Longombas brothers says
that pirating, which he describes as rife in Kenya, is one of
their greatest problem. Christian. However, says that although
they do not get as much as they would like, especially from royalties
and radio stations, the group is nevertheless not complaining
as they can pay their bills and help their widowed mother. They
even managed to buy their first car recently and they wear designer
clothes (Christian, interview).
[38] The question of whether Kenyan gospel artists sing for Christ
or for money is a tricky one, and the truth may never be known
for sure. But one thing is certain, and that is that gospel artists
are a talented lot who have eked out a decent living for themselves
through their talents, and through gospel music many of them have
become celebrities in Kenya’s soundscape. Thus one can appreciate
the creativity of Kenyan gospel artists and the opportunities
provided to them by this new form of African Christianity of the
Pentecostal/Charismatic variant. One can also appreciate
the adaptability of African cultural productions to processes
of commercialization in the twenty-first century. We can also
celebrate the creativity of African artists in a world where survival
and creativity compete for space in a challenging social, cultural,
political and economic environment.
[39] But it has not been a smooth ride for gospel artists in Kenya
who have come a long and bumpy way. One of the most threatening
challenges facing local artists and producers is piracy and breach
of copyright laws. Pirated music is sold on the streets, markets
and shops. Hawkers roam the city streets oblivious of any crime
and the majority of Kenyans buy pirated tapes because they are
cheaper and just as good as legal ones. The laws on pirating are
not clear and the government is lax about it. Hawkers are rarely
arrested and Kenyans seem unconcerned about this issue. This has
forced artists and producers to hold demonstrations against pirating,
but without much success. Others have sought the help of the media
by advertising the need to shun pirated tapes/music. While this
is a step in the right direction, the media have a moral duty
to educate and sensitize the public about this threat and plight
of local artists, and the government needs to shun its lax attitude
and save local artists from this peril.
[40] However, despite the many challenges facing local artists,
gospel music has cut out a niche for itself in the country’s
public space. The success of gospel music has influenced secular
artists and groups in mainline churches to produce and record
gospel music too. For example, the hit You Are Alpha and Omega has
a Catholic background; it is shot in a catholic cathedral with
veiled nuns singing and dancing in the background, candles, crucifixes
and many other religious items. However, the song is sung in the
characteristic Pentecostal style, a development that is described
as the “pentecostalisation” or “charismatisation” of
mainline music and Christianity in Kenya. At the same time,
it has caused many secular artists to cross over and produce gospel
music, or to produce gospel alongside secular music. While it
is not an easy task to explain the motives of gospel artists,
the fact that there is a large exodus of secular artists crossing
over to sing gospel music is evidence that the grass is greener
on the other side of the fence. Several of Nairobi’s most
famous artists have gone from pop to gospel. Joseph Kamaru, a
pillar of Kikuyu pop since the 1960s recently disbanded his group
and formed a gospel band (Paterson 1995). Emachichi, who regrettably
passed away at the time of writing this paper, was a secular artist
but shifted to gospel music several years ago. Other pop singers
may have gone through a transformation through conversion to become “born
again,” thus necessitating a complete break from the past
as is expected of all converts to Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity.
All, however, agree that their songs are a call to salvation in
Jesus Christ and their songs begin from that premise.
[41] Liberalization of the airwaves encouraged local Kenyans to
venture into the area of music production, recording and marketing.
These include producers like Teddy Josiah, the Kasanga’s
and the Mwaura’s to name just a few. Recording studios include
Kijiji records, Underground entertainment, Ogopa Deejays, Blu
Zebra Records, Holy Wave records and many others. At the same
time many Pentecostal/Charismatic churches also run commercial
recording and editing studios and printing facilities, thereby
drawing many artists who previously would have described themselves
as secular into the realms of Pentecostalism (Collins 2002). Kenyan
is a strong Christian nation (over 70% of Kenyans profess to be
Christians) with a strong Christian ethos that pervades the country.
This Christian environment is conducive for the growth and success
of gospel music as the majority of the population is receptive
to this kind of music. As Chitando correctly observes of the Zimbabwean
context, the appearance of this type of Christianity as a religion
of modernity put it at a strategic advantage on the spiritual
market (Chitando 2002).
[42] The success of gospel music is not only restricted to the
local scene. It has gone international too with Gospel musicians
like Alvan Gatitu, Esther Wahome, Gospel Fathers, Dickson Thuo
and the Longombas brothers performing internationally in such
countries as the USA, Sweden, Norway, Germany, India and England.
Kenyans in the Diaspora particularly those of Pentecostal/Charismatic
traditions carry this music to their foreign lands or even order
them from their relatives back home. Hence gospel music has crossed
borders thanks to thousands of Kenyans in Diaspora. It is estimated
that more than 70,000 Kenyans live in major cities in the USA
alone while many more are scattered across the globe (Parsitau
2006), These Kenyans desire gospel music from back home because
it is culturally relevant to them. Gerrie Ter Haar captured it
well when she described Africans in the Diaspora as being Halfway
to paradise (Ter Haar 1998). Listening to music from home
while away from home strikes accord and evokes certain emotions.
It makes them feel like at home though away from home. Due to
large numbers of Kenyans living in Diaspora, Kenyan gospel music
is slowly become a global phenomena.
They Sang the Lord’s Song: The Appropriation
of Gospel Music in Political Discourses in Kenya
[43] Kenyan gospel music has not only evolved into a new thing
but has also invaded public space. It has flourished in a predominantly
Christian environment to make a mark in the country’s public
space. It has also invaded homes, market-stalls, offices and public
transport. Although Kenya is a religiously pluralistic country,
Christianity enjoys a high profile ahead of all other religions
such as African Traditional Religion, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism.
Islam particularly is strongly asserting itself in Kenyan public
space and is vying for recognition with Christianity. However,
although the country’s constitution states that Kenya is
a secular state, the reality on the ground is that Christianity
is de facto the official religion of the country (Chitando
2003). Christian prayers are used in state functions with Christian
clergy officiating. While other religions are beginning to assert
themselves, Christian dominance is still strong.
[44] On radio and Television, Christian programmes and music,
particularly of the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant, dominate
the airwaves while the other religions are completely absent.
This has ushered Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity into public
space. Mainline Christianity is invisible in Kenya’s media
scene. Gospel music, especially Pentecostal/Charismatic, dominates
the country’s music scene with many gospel artists becoming
celebrities. In Kenya, Pentecostal/Charismatic churches provide
the highest number of gospel musicians. Gospel music is regarded
as a strategic device to spread the word of God and bring people
to repentance. By taking advantage of a receptive Christian environment,
gospel music has carved out a place for itself in the country’s
public space so that politicians are now appropriating gospel
music tunes in their political and electoral campaigns.
[45] In fact, since the turn of the millennium, an emergent trend
in Kenya’s political scene has been the appropriation of
gospel music in political discourses. During political campaigns,
especially electoral politics, politicians use gospel music or
pick popular gospel hits and tunes and add their own words to
suit their political campaigns. For example, during the 2002 election
campaign, politicians turned a popular gospel lyric “All
things are possible by faith” to “all things
are possible without Moi” (Moi is former president of the
country). Today, the main opposition party, the Orange Democratic
Movement (ODM-Kenya), has turned the gospel lyrics “brethren
don’t sleep yet for the battle is far from over” to “Kenyans
don’t sleep yet the battle of removing president Kibaki
from power and the war for democratic space is far from over.” Thus
in these political campaigns popular gospel songs acquire new
meanings altogether and strike a chord or evoke certain emotions
among Kenyans. Kenya, as a Christian nation, is receptive to this
development because it evokes sentimental feelings and appears
appropriate. According to Rev. Paul Mwakio of Deliverance Church,
it is better for politicians to borrow gospel tunes than secular
tunes because it means that Christianity is making an impact on
the country (Mwakio, interview 2005).
[46] The appropriation of gospel songs in Kenyan political discourses
may be understood against the backdrop of the dominance of Christianity
in the country. As stated above, although Kenya is a secular state
constitutionally speaking, the reality is that that Christianity
is the predominant religion of the country. Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has therefore ushered gospel music into public space.
This has led to a kind of pentecostalisation of public space where
the boundaries between politics, religion and entertainment have
become increasingly blurred (Meyer 2004). Rosalind Hackett notes
that music is in fact one of the most important ways in which
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians construct their identity and
invade public space (Hackett 1998, 263).
[47] Pentecostal/Charismatic gospel music has not only invaded
public space but has also influenced music in mainline churches.
Thus mainline Christianity in Kenya as elsewhere in Africa is
incorporating Pentecostal/Charismatic spirituality in order to
survive. Kwabena notes that the Pentecostal/Charismatic influence
is so strong that churches that refuse to incorporate it know
they face atrophy (Kwabena 2005). This has led to what is now
popularly known as the pentecostalisation and charismatisation
of mainline Christianity (Cephas Omenyo 2004). This phenomenon
has had a significant impact on mainline Christianity in terms
of worship, music and practices, increasingly blurring the line
between mainline Christianity and its Pentecostal/Charismatic
counterparts. I concur with Cephas Omenyo, who observes that there
is a major pragmatic shift in the spirituality, theology, practices
and programmes of mainline churches (Omenyo 2002).
[48] The success and popularity of gospel music in Kenya’s
public space has influenced secular artists and groups in mainline
churches to produce and record gospel music after the manner of
the Pentecostal/Charismatic style. For example, the hit You
Are Alpha and Omega has a Catholic background; as noted earlier,
it is shot in a Catholic cathedral with veiled nuns singing and
dancing, candles crucifixes, etc. However, the song is sung in
the usual Pentecostal style. A quick look at worship
services in several mainline churches, especially of the Protestant
tradition, reveals that there is a heavy borrowing of Pentecostal/Charismatic
style of music and spirituality. Thus gospel music has
not only invaded public culture but is also revolutionizing mainline
Christian worship services and music. A survey of Kenyan mainline
churches, particularly the Protestant churches such as Presbyterian
church and African inland churches reveals that these churches
now hold youth services early on Sunday where the youth sing,
dance and worship in a characteristic Pentecostal/Charismatic
style. This is definitely a survival strategy necessitated by
the large exodus of youth from mainline churches to Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches.
“Praising God
in my Mother Tongue”: Blended Music with an African Touch
[49] The 1990s witnessed rapid growth and change in Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches, both in terms of worship and styles. The emergence of
megachurches and ministries created the need for a more diverse
and blended music. New paradigms for worship and revival, together
with the inclusion and incorporation of new styles, forms and
expressions of gospel music, have since emerged. Gospel
music in Kenya, though heavily influenced by foreign styles and
tunes, however, still maintains a strong Kenyan identity. The
dances in these churches betray certain roots and a quick look
at different styles of dance reveal immediately that the dancer
is from a particular ethnic group. Some of the rhythms and beats
resonate with traditional African music.
[50] There is also a growing shift on the Kenyan gospel scene
from hip-hop to embracing Afro-fusion styles and tunes. Kenyans
in the Diaspora who have been away from home for along time crave
for something different from western music. Kenyans who desire
a more culturally relevant music with an African touch are propagating
for this emergent trend. This type of music is being promoted
and produced by, among others, Kijiji records, owned by USA based
Kenyan gospel group Milele singers (Milele is a Swahili word that
means forever while Kijiji is a Swahili word which, literally
translated, means village). According to Kanji Mbugua, the owner
of Kijiji Records, their music literally takes Kenyans back to
the village or back to African roots in their music. He asserts
that his records are out to promote gospel music with and African
touch and feel. The Milele group has three albums: Level Up,
Forever and Afrique, which have sold 40,000 copies
in the US alone (Kanji 2005).
[51] Another emergent trend in the Kenyan gospel music scene is
the adoption of vernacular languages, especially from dominant
ethnic groups such as Kikuyu, Luyhia, Dholuo, Kamba and Kalenjin.
The Kikuyu language dominates the gospel scene with many artists
singing in Kikuyu, the language of the largest tribe in Kenya.
Vernacular gospel music is also popular, with major tribes recording
in their mother tongues. In major cities and towns, songs in these
dialects are heard blaring from the cassette-sellers’ stalls
and markets as they compete for space and attention (Paterson
1995). The dominance of large ethnic groups in the gospel music
scene has led to a feeling of marginalisation of minority groups
and dialects. Pentecostal/Charismatic church services need to
be sensitive to these feelings so as not to be seen as promoting
ethnic exclusiveness and marginalization, especially when they
are viewed as churches that cut across ethnic barriers.
[52] The paper has examined the evolution, development and significant
place of gospel music in the spiritual life of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity. These churches that have become a significant expression
of African Christianity are the main locus of gospel music in Kenya.
This paper has shown how globalization has impacted on the evolution
of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity and popular culture,
particularly gospel music. The paper maintains that in reality gospel
music, the mass media and religion have all merged together to produce
a pentecostalite culture that is inspired by general popular culture.
Gospel music as popular culture has also led to the creation of youth
identities and a new cultural expression. It also argues that the
main attraction of these churches is their popular cultural appeal.
Popular culture is manifested in music, films, fashion and language.
[53] The paper also observes that these churches have demonstrated
a form of African Christianity that appeals to a new generation
of Kenyans and has facilitated the emergence of various social
groups such as women, youth and children into public space. These
social groups are contesting religious and cultural spaces and
have become successful cultural workers in their own rights. Gospel
music has also invaded public space, and politicians are appropriating
gospel music into political discourses in their political campaigns
and rallies. Gospel music competes for space in Kenyan homes,
offices, and markets and in public transport and has cut for itself
a niche in the country’s public culture. Gospel music has
also invaded the realm of mainline churches and has created a
shift in mainline church worship services and music. This has
led to a Pentecostalisation and Charismatisation of mainline Christianity
in Kenya. Gospel music has also successfully adapted itself to
changing times without loosing its Kenyan identity. In its own
unique way, gospel music as popular culture celebrates the resilience
and adaptability of Kenyan society, modern processes of globalization
and commercialization in the twenty-first century. Gospel music
in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches in Kenya is not only attractive
and refreshing but also dynamic and contemporary. It has evolved
into new versions, styles and tunes and become a lucrative venture
that has spawned a new recording business industry (Gifford 1998).
Because of the mushrooming of new Pentecostal/Charismatic movements,
gospel music is also evolving. Kenya has therefore produced a
highly developed gospel music industry with promising prospects
for the future.
References
Anderson, Allan. 2005. New African Initiated Pentecostalism
and Charismatic in South Africa. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill
NV.
_________ 2002. “The Globalisation of Pentecostalism.” Paper
presented at the Churches’ Commission on Mission, Annual
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Interviews
Alvan Gatitu, August 7,2006.
Christian, August 8, 2006.
Esther Wahome, August 10, 2006.
Father Maloba, September 5, 2006.
Pastor Paul Mwakio, March 2006.
Kanji, interview, October 2005.
