Abstract
The paper examines and analyses the significance of
gospel music as popular culture in the spiritual lives
of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians. It argues
that the phenomenal rise of gospel in Kenya was at
its climax in the 1990s, a period that also coincidentally
took place with the liberalization of airwaves and
the immense growth of these churches. The nineties
were also a period of difficult social, political and
economic hardships in Kenya and the rise of gospel
music is related to these happenings. Gospel music
as popular culture has become an important segment
of youth culture in Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches
in urban areas and is also a significant expression
of youth identity in twenty-first century Kenya. The
paper points out that these churches are the main locus
of gospel music and have facilitated the successful
emergence of social groups such as women, youth and
children into public space as cultural workers who
had otherwise been rendered invisible. It maintains
that Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has become
a place where such social groups are contesting
religious and creative space in Kenya’s public
culture. The paper further argues that although there
are many attractions to this form of African Christianity,
its main attraction is cultural. This cultural appeal
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity is found in
the appropriation of popular culture, which is expressed
in music, dance, films, dress code and language. The
paper therefore seeks to understand and link religion
with popular culture and examines how new religious
movements fit into the context of popular culture in
Kenya. It maintains that gospel music in Kenya is a
blend of local music with influences from many countries
and musical styles from other parts of the world. The
paper also observes that gospel music represents a
valuable entry point into discourses of contemporary
African cultural productions (Chitando 2002). The study
hopes to contribute to the discourses on religion and
public space and religious constructed identities.
It argues that the media has ushered in gospel music
and these churches into public space and has led to
a kind of Pentecostalite culture that has pervaded
public culture in Kenya
Gospel Music in Kenya: An Overview
[1] This study examines the
evolution and significance of gospel music in the
religious life and spiritual experience of Kenyan
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity and in general
public culture. The paper was informed by the need
to understand gospel music in Kenya that has witnessed
a phenomenal growth since the 1990s to date. Three
factors were responsible for this immense growth
of gospel music, and these are, a deteriorating
socio-political and economic environment, the proliferation
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches, which witnessed
phenomenal growth in the 90s, and the liberalization
of airwaves, which equally took place at the same time.
These three factors ensured the ascendancy and popularity
of gospel music in Kenya that has totally revolutionized
the country’s gospel music scene. Yet despite
the immense growth and significance of gospel music
as popular culture, African scholars of religion have
not paid attention to this significant development
in Kenya.
[2] The paper approaches gospel music with Christian
theological ideas and examines religion as an integral
part of culture, that is, religion as a cultural phenomenon
(Chitando 2002). It focuses on gospel music as an integral
part of these churches and maintains that these churches
are the main locus of gospel music. It contends that
gospel music represents a valuable entry point into
discussions of contemporary African cultural production
(Chitando 2002). The paper also observes that although
there are many attractions to these churches, its main
appeal is cultural. African scholars particularly in
the area of religion have not paid sufficient attention
to religion as popular culture and as a cultural phenomenon
in Kenya and this paper hopes to fill in this glaring
gap.
[3] The paper also attempts to capture the impact of
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity on musical performances
and highlights the various groups of cultural workers
who have benefited from the phenomenal growth of gospel
music (Chitando 2002). It undertakes an analysis of
the context in which gospel music was able to thrive
and links this music to social, political and economic
developments in Kenya. It also highlights the neglected
area of religion and the construction of religious
identities. It maintains that gospel music is one of
the main ways in which African Christian identities
are being negotiated and constructed (Chitando 2002).
The paper therefore seeks to understand the various
musical styles, tunes and other borrowed elements,
adaptations and creativity that can be discerned in
gospel music in Kenya. The paper also examines the
appropriation of externally derived musical styles,
foreign adaptations and dance routines in a local context
and seeks to interpret them (Chitando 2002).
[4] The paper also examines
the role of mass media in the evolution of gospel
music and argues that the mass media have played
a significant role in the development of gospel
music in Kenya. The proliferation of these churches
coupled with media technologies has ushered in a
new chapter in Kenyan gospel music in particular
and popular culture generally. Gospel music has grown
in popularity and is played on radio, television, on
the streets, churches, shops and even bars at ear-deafening
levels thanks to modern technology. It is sold in markets
and commented on magazines and newspapers and indeed
underpins an entire recording business (Gifford 1998).
This is a remarkable social and cultural phenomenon
and these new churches are an integral part of it (Gifford
1998). Thus the mass media have been instrumental in
the evolution of popular culture while Pentecostal
Churches have revolutionized gospel music altogether.
This music has become so central to these churches
that the first thing a Pentecostal/Charismatic church
will save for is its public address system and the
latest musical instruments in music technology. Indeed
one of the greatest attractions to these churches is
their live and entertaining music and their state of
the art public address system. Definitely, the music
in these churches is without doubt a significant element
in the whole experience (Gifford 1998).
[5] Although gospel music has been around for a long
time, the 1990s marked its zenith and immense growth.
The 1990s was epochal in the history of gospel music
in Kenya as it coincided with other developments such
as deteriorating social, political and economic circumstances
and the liberalization of the airwaves. The rise of
this new sector of African Christianity has greatly
increased the popularity of gospel music in general
and choral music in particular (Paterson 1995). Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has become one of the most dominant Christian
constituencies in Africa today, and the movement has
grown significantly over the last two decades. The
movement has become a significant expression of Christianity
on the continent and according to Harvey Cox, the movement
is reshaping religion in the twenty first century (Cox
1996).
[6] Defining Pentecostalism
is not easy, given its diverse manifestations and
characteristics. However, despite the visible differences
and diversities, there are still certain commonalities
and similar features that can be identified in the
world of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity in
Africa (Droogers 2002). Among these features are
speaking in tongues, divine healing, exuberant singing,
dancing and clapping of hands and the so-called
prosperity theology that they all endeavor to promote
(Droogers 2002). Nevertheless, Pentecostalism is better
understood as multifarious movements concerned primarily
with the experience of the working of the Holy Spirit
and the practices of spiritual gifts (Anderson 2002).
Ghanaian Pentecostal scholar Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu,
defines Pentecostalism as that “stream of Christianity
that emphasizes personal salvation in Christ as a trans-formative
experience brought about by the Holy Spirit and in
which such pneumatic phenomena as speaking in tongues,
prophecies, visions, healing, miracles, signs and wonders
in general are sought, accepted, valued and consciously
encouraged among members as evidence of the active
presence of God’s Spirit” (Kwabena 2005).
Charismatic Christianity is restricted to Pentecostal
renewal movements that operate within historic mission
denominations or mainline churches (Kwabena 2005).
This paper adopts Kwabena’s definition of these
churches.
[7] Pentecostal/Charismatic movements have mushroomed
in many different shapes and sizes all over the world
and Kenya in particular. Kenya has evolved a strong
Pentecostal/Charismatic tradition over the last few
decades. The numerous air-rallies, crusades, revival
gatherings, miracle centers, healing ministries, single
ladies ministries and more recently televangelism,
are evidence of this fact (Shorter and Njiru 2003).
Pentecostal/Charismatic churches and ministries as
they are commonly called have mushroomed in almost
every part of the country but more especially in urban
centres. The emergence of a global cultural system
as a result of social and cultural development could,
to a large extent, explain the growth of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity in Kenya. Globalization has affected religion
in a big way, particularly in the emergence of the
new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches and popular culture,
particularly popular music. The mechanisms of the processes
of globalization are evident in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches. These are the use of the mass media to disseminate
its ideas, a social organization that promotes internationalism
through travel and networking, conferences and mega
churches that function like international corporations
and a global culture that transcends locality and displays
striking similarities in different parts of the world
(Anderson 2005; Coleman 2000; Parsitau 2006).
[8] Examples of Pentecostal/Charismatic churches in
Kenya are the Deliverance Churches of Kenya, Neno Evangelism
Ministries, Kuna Nuru Gizani Ministries, The Happy
Churches of Kenya, Faith Evangelistic Ministries, Jesus
Celebration Centre Ministries, The Redeemed Gospel
Church, Nairobi Pentecostal Church; Jesus is Alive
Ministries and Winners Chapel International Ministries,
among others. Pentecostalism in Kenya currently constitutes
a major social movement and commands thousands of followers.
This paper focuses on those churches that begun in
the seventies and gained momentum in the nineties to
date. The Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have been
the locus of gospel music and have greatly revolutionized
gospel music scene in Kenya. These churches have also
invaded public space and have had a significant impact
on general public culture.
[9] It is in the quest to understand gospel music in
the spiritual lives of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity that this paper finds its justification.
The paper grapples with the following questions: What
is gospel music? What is its place and significance
in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches? How have these
churches revolutionized gospel music scene in Kenya?
Who are the team players in the gospel music scene?
What social, political and economic factors have led
to the evolution of gospel music? What are the dominant
themes discernable in this music? What is the role
of the media in ushering in gospel music? Is the music
contemporary, current, foreign or purely traditional
African music? How has it invaded public space? What
identities are discernable? The paper will wrestle
with these questions in order to understand the impact
and significance of gospel music in Kenya.
Gospel Music in Pentecostal/Charismatic
Churches
[10] The Pentecostal/Charismatic Movement is known
for the significant and central role it gives to gospel
music in all aspects of the lives of its adherents.
This music has been described as fervent, emotional,
spiritual, dynamic, exuberant and quite entertaining.
Indeed music is an important feature of Pentecostal/Charismatic
worship and church services. Music particularly gospel
music is tied to Pentecostal/Charismatic church history
and is central to their religious and spiritual experiences.
The place and role of gospel music in these churches
cannot therefore be gain-stated. Gospel music occupies
a pivotal place in the spiritual lives of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christians and these churches are the main locus of
music performances, as the creation of a new social
identity is one of their major preoccupation (Chitando
2002). Gospel music also plays a key role in serving
as a powerful and meaningful symbol of identity, functioning
as an avenue for the expression and mediation of conflict
(Manuel 1988,16). Thus music occupies a central place
in the spiritual experiences of the Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christians.
[11] But what exactly is gospel
music? Like many other religious, cultural and social
phenomena, scholars have grappled with the task
of defining gospel music. We will attempt some of
definition here. In many parts of the world, the
word gospel music is used to refer to musical products
closely associated with Christianity. Nigerian scholar
Mathews Ojo notes that though the term gospel music
is really too sweeping, it could be taken to refer
to a distinct kind of music composed and rendered
by men and women who call themselves Christians
and who refer to their music as “ministration
of the good news in songs: (Ojo 1998, 211). This paper
adopts Oyo’s definition of gospel music without
getting into various definitional debates. It concurs
with Chitando’s observation that understands
gospel music as one that is ‘laden with Christian
themes and performed by people who regard themselves
as Christians with a mission to preach the word of
God through music’ (Chitando 2002). In Kenya,
gospel music has proliferated greatly with the proliferation
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches. The phenomenal
growth of these churches in the last few decades has
brought about a revival of emphasis on praise and worship
in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic scene and religious
life generally. These churches have also brought about
freedom in worship, joyful singing and dancing, clapping
of hands, physical expressions of praise accompanied
by loud and powerful musical instruments and an acceptance
of a wide variety of music styles and tunes. Pentecostal/Charismatic
worship services are characterized by emotional singing,
shouting, dancing, leaping, and clapping of hands.
[12] The style of worship in
these churches is exuberant and exciting, with a
strong emphasis on singing, dancing and the use
of popular music. Indeed one of the greatest attractions
of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic movements is
their lively and entertaining music and dance, which
is usually performed by church praise and worship teams
(Gifford 1998). The praise and worship team is central
to these churches as singing and worship is an important
aspect of the service. The services in these churches
are made up of three parts: the music, which includes
praise and worship, the Sermon and the offering service
(Gifford 1998). Although the choir and soloist
participate, the singing is participatory and normally
involves the entire congregation led by a choir or
worship leader and backed by a team of instrumentalists.
To use Gifford’s words, these services are exuberant
and exhilarating (Gifford 1998, 146). Most songs are
normally in English the language of modernity and in
most cases they are translated to the national language
Kiswahili and an assortment of other ethnic dialects.
These churches do not use the traditional hymnbooks,
a feature that sets them a part from mainline Christian
music. As Gifford observes no hymnbooks are required
as the words are simple and repetitious, and one hymn
can be repeated for up to twenty minutes (Gifford 1998,
146). This music is not only current and in tune with
what is going on globally on the world music scene,
but it is also without doubt a significant element
in the whole experience (Gifford 1998, 146).
[13] Hollenweger observes that
a major attraction of these churches is their music
and liturgy. He points out that it is spontaneity
and enthusiasm which, rather than leading to an
absence of liturgy, produces flexible oral liturgies
memorized by the Pentecostal congregations (Hollenweger
1997). Pentecostal/Charismatic church services and
their music are usually emotional and enthusiastic
(Anderson 2000). Describing the emotions stirred
up by music is a difficult task because words fall
short. However, music has such abilities to stir
up emotions that it precedes the messages in many of
these churches (Anderson 2000). The church choir usually
leads the congregation in such emotional songs to “usher
in” the presence of the Holy Spirit and to prepare
people for the sermons. It is common to see people
crying, falling and displaying strange feelings and
pneumatic phenomena during worship services. There
is no doubt that the flourishing of Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has had a significant impact on the evolution
and success of gospel music in Kenya. These churches
are the locus of gospel music and have totally revolutionized
Kenya’s gospel music scene.
Gospel
Music and Youth
[14] There is no doubt that
the Pentecostal/Charismatic style of worship is
a big factor of attraction to many Kenyans, particularly
the youth. The services in these churches are lively,
refreshing and definitely geared to meet the needs
of the modern Kenyan. The Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches appeal to the youth most and their music is
a big factor of attraction. Gifford asserts that Pentecostal
gospel music is particularly “exhilarating in
a way that the mainline churches cannot match” (Gifford
1998). He observes that the “contrast is particularly
evident in Methodist and Anglican churches where it
is not possible to sing any hymns composed this century
(Gifford 1998). But it is not just that Charismatic
worship is livelier, it is that due to their social
economic circumstances most young people have no money
to go to nightclubs, discos or concerts for their entertainment” (Gifford
1998). Instead of spending scarce money on discos and
nightclubs, teenagers now go to church to dance, entertain
themselves and meet other youth. These churches are
therefore creating a new expression of culture (Gifford
1998).
[15] In these churches, there
exists a very active youth wing and numerous social
occasions for the young where they can be creative
and entertained. Consequently there are special
events, mixing traditional gospel music with Western
style music such as rap, hip-hop, jazz, reggae,
and African music/dance that are all consumed and
accepted in these churches (Gifford 1998). These
churches have therefore become like recreational
places for the youth in Kenya. David Maxwell correctly
observes that the born again movements offers African
youth, who are the most vulnerable groupings in Africa’s
contemporary social and economic malaise, an alternative
pattern of life (Maxwell 1998). It provides them with
purpose and empowerment in a world where secular ideologies
have failed and national identities lose their salience
(Maxwell 1998).
[16] These churches are creating
a new expression of culture and youth identity constructed
around religion. Every Sunday in major Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches such as the Deliverance church will stage
an evening, which is part concert, part service
and performing will be its own best choirs or soloists
along with several new local but professional gospel
artists (Gifford 1998). These artists also stage
performances for famous and popular North American
and European televangelists who come to Kenya to
preach and hold crusades. Gospel music is definitely
an important element of the Pentecostal/Charismatic
church crusades (Gifford 1998). Thus, the evolution
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has altered
Kenya’s soundscape ushered in a Pentecostal type
of popular culture. This is the cultural attractiveness
of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity to youth who,
as previously said, aspire to a western consumerist
culture. The attraction of the youth to these churches
is found in the increasing appropriation and consumption
of popular culture. This has been made possible by
modern means of communication and technology that have
become an important feature in these churches (Parsitau
2005). The appropriation of media technologies in these
churches allows the youth to consume popular culture
indiscriminately. For example, the youth in these churches
imitate North American celebrities, particularly Afro-Americans
in their dress, “bling bling” (an Afro-American
slang for an assortment of jewelry won by the youth),
haircuts, hairdos, language, music and dance.
[17] International gospel musicians,
especially those from North America, have also become
fairly popular in Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches and their songs are well known and appropriated.
Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic televangelists in
their many international travels buy lots of gospel
music tapes from North America and Europe and stock
them in their bookstores together with other religious
literature. Their church choirs are therefore constantly
familiar with new trends in gospel music in the
rest of the world. Gospel music from internationally
renown artists such as Ron Kenoly, Alvin Slaughter,
Don Moen, Lenny Leblanc, Kirk Franklin, Cece Winans
and many others are sung by Pentecostal/Charismatic
church choirs. Much of the gospel music sung in, for
example, Deliverance Church Nakuru is heavily borrowed
from the above-mentioned artists and others. The music
consumed in these churches is therefore western or
heavily western influenced and incorporates foreign
styles such as hip-hop, rap, reggae, country and others
(Gifford 1998). The songs are normally performed in
English and translated into Kiswahili. The adoption
of new styles and tunes has not been immune from criticism.
Many critics of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches
hold a strong view that this music is excessively western
and related to the processes of globalization that
have popularized Western values, particularly popular
music However despite the criticisms, one
can also appreciate the creativity and sophistication
that have been shown by Kenyan youth (Chitando 2002).
I concur with Chitando who observes that gospel music
has been an avenue through which young people assert
their rights to be seen, heard and recognized as cultural
workers in their own right (2002).
Gospel
Music as Contemporary Music
[18] Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has always considered its music to
be current and contemporary. Their music also reflects
contemporary styles such as gospel reggae, jazz,
rap, hip-hop, soul, and rhythm and blues. This is
especially popular with the youth who are the main
consumers of this music because it is current and
appeals to them. According to Alvan Gatitu, a young
Gospel artist who has three CDs to his name, gospel
music is appealing to the youth because it is current,
contemporary and is in tune with the times they
live in (Gatitu, interview 2006). In other words
it reflects the cultural realities of their times.
Besides the current, contemporary and dynamic music
in these churches, the fashion and dress code are also
modern, trendy and appeals to the youth. Kwabena
correctly observes that the Pentecostal/Charismatic
Churches have a relaxed fashion conscious dress code,
which is particularly attractive to the youth (Kwabena
2005). But this relaxed dress and fashion code has
however attracted a lot of controversy and criticisms
against these churches with many critics claiming that
Pentecostal/Charismatic gospel music and the youth
dress code are gradually becoming a fad driven by westernization,
popular culture and foreign clinches (Kariuki 2005).
The dressing code has also been criticized as too worldly,
and un-Christian. Actually by looking at the dressing
code of young gospel artists in Kenya, the trouser
suit, the “bling bling” and
other popular styles, it becomes very difficult to
draw the line between secular music and gospel music
(Kariuki 2005). Also, the boundaries between religion,
entertainment and popular culture are becoming increasingly
blurred (Meyer 2002).
[19] This has been the main bone of contention from
the critics of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
But Pentecostal church leaders defend the music and
dress of the youth by arguing that they befit the cultural
reality of their time and that the youth are simply
celebrating the times they are living in. They argue
that the youth should not be constrained by unnecessary
church traditions and old fashion views. Pentecostal/Charismatic
church leaders and preachers are of the view that there
is need to understand and appreciate youth and the
times they live in. After all, the reality is that
Kenyan youth like others in Africa are at the centre
of the global discourse on culture and music that has
been ushered in by processes of globalization, particularly
cultural globalization. Today Kenyan popular music,
secular or gospel is slowly becoming a global phenomenon
accompanied by technological innovations and a lucrative
recording industry. The arrival of better and more
easily accessible instrumentation and recording facilities
is continuing to strengthen and diversify the Kenyan
gospel music scene and there is no doubt that the new
Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have influenced the
direction that this music is assuming. Thus these churches
endeavor to forge a new identity inspired by popular
culture.
[20] Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have attempted
to bridge the gap between the generations by allowing
the youth to go contemporary in their music and cultural
creativity. These churches have embraced the latest
electronic gadgets such as the electric guitar, electric
keyboards and sophisticated electronic sound systems.
Herein lies contemporary Christian music, which has
had far-reaching consequences for this type of African
Christianity, and which has also stirred controversy
and aroused resistance from mainline churches especially.
There is also the influence of Christian artists and
writers who use popular musical forms and ideas such
as rock, rap, jazz, hip-hop and gospel reggae. The
fusion of gospel music happened alongside modern trends
in Kenyan popular music (Chitando 2002). On a smaller
but perhaps more effective scale, television stations
have helped to sustain this trend. Because of the limited
availability of local programmes, enthusiastic station
managers provide generous airtime to foreign and local
celebrities in the world of music. Thus The Beats,
Channel O, Da Vibe and The Stomp, are all
music programmes that bring all manner of popular music
to the Kenyan youth. This in turn increases awareness
of new directions in popular music in Europe, the United
States and other parts of the world. This has made
gospel music dynamic and contemporary, yet it has not
lost its distinctive Kenyan identity. This is because
though the youth have incorporated and appropriated
other foreign musical styles, they also use vernacular
languages and lyrics. Roy Smith Mwaita popularly known
as Rafftone, one of the most successful gospel artists
raps in his Luyha dialect. His song Tsinyanga Tsiwere (“Days
are Over”) is a popular hit. This type
of creativity shows that music is dynamic not static,
and that gospel artists are always seeking for new
styles to appeal to their audience. The youth in Kenyan
are simply reinventing themselves in exciting and cutting
age ways.
Let the
Marginalized Sing: Women and Children in Gospel
Music Scene
[21] Gospel music has also ushered
in new social groups that have been perceived as
marginalized into the country’s
public scene. These are the women, particularly young
professional women and young children. Some of these
children are as young as five while others are in their
preteens. The emergence and use of children’s
bands and singing groups has become a popular phenomenon
in Kenyan gospel music scene and the Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches have helped in their emergence. This is because
these churches have helped propagate the notion that
gospel music is sacred and acceptable. It is now common
to see gospel artists sing alongside young children
or use them in their singing groups and bands. For
instance, the group Maximum Melodies, winners of a
Kora award in South Africa in 2005, is composed of
mainly young children and a few youth. They have formed
a popular children band called Maximum Melody Kids.
Other gospel artists such as Esther Wahome and Emachichi
have also sung along with children. These artists appropriate
new styles to appeal to younger audience and children
to appeal to older generations. Most parents are comfortable
with their children singing and dancing gospel music
which is perceived as sacred rather than secular music
which is perceived as an-Christian. This is a radical
departure from the past where many parents were uncomfortable
with their children embracing the arts that were not
taken seriously then. Instead most parents preferred
and encouraged their children to embrace carreers such
as law, engineering, teaching and medicine (Chitando
2002).
[22] The success of gospel music
has facilitated the acceptance of gospel music by
parents and society thus allowing youth and children
to sing and embrace the arts. Gospel music also
helps sacralise certain attitudes, styles and dances.
It also seeks to purify popular culture and has
introduced the concept of sacred and good music
and dance as opposed to secular music that is viewed
as immoral and unacceptable. Good music and dance
as opposed to bad music emerged and certain dances
and styles were justified as good and acceptable as
long as the music and dance is Christian. The ideology
that gospel music is tied to Christian evangelism has
also facilitated the emergence of children’s
and youth music groups (Chitando 2002).
[23] A strong feature of Kenyan
gospel music scene is the place and significance
of female gospel singers. Gospel music, particularly
in Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches, has facilitated
the emergence of successful female artists in the
gospel music industry. The list is endless: Esther
Wahome, Joan Wairimu, Jemimah Thiong’o,
Neema Ntaalel, Angela Chibalonza, Naomi Nyongesa, Mary
Atieno, Mrs. Mwaura, Mrs. Jefwa, Mary Wambui, Nancy
Torome and many others. These women have become an
integral part of Kenyan gospel music scene and they
appear to outshine the male gospel artists. Kenyan
Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have opened several
opportunities to women from leadership to the arts.
Ruth Marshall observes that young women find in born
again communities opportunities for constructing space
where they can move with relative freedom and dignity
(Marshall 1992, 22). In this sense, female gospel artists
are contesting their own space in a predominantly patriarchal
Kenyan society. Writing about the gospel music scene
in Nigeria, Mathew Ojo observes that more women have
found gospel music as a potent means of enhancing self-expression
and self-determination (Ojo 1998, 222-23). Hence gospel
music has empowered women, youth and children and has
created many job opportunities for them. Gospel music
has therefore ushered in these groups of the marginalized
into public and cultural spaces and has empowered them
economically and culturally. Though it has been a bumpy
road given the general criticisms they have endured,
their emergence and dominance in the gospel scene is
a confirmation of their desire to contest religious
and cultural spaces in a patriarchal and gerontocratic
Kenyan society.
Dominant
Themes in Gospel Music
[24] Gospel artists in Kenya address issues such as
HIV/AIDS, sexual abuse, corruption, drug abuse, prosperity
and economic hardships and attempt to provide solutions
to these issues in their music. Songs such Kuna
Dawa (“There is Medicine”) by
Esther Wahome and Kunywa Maji ya Uzima (“Drink
the Water of Life”) by Joan Wairimu, and Vuta
Pumz (“take a break” from sexual indulgence
to avoid HIV/Aids infections), by the Longombas’ brothers
Christian and Lovi, attempt to address a host of issues
from the threat of HIV/Aids to how to live positively
with the virus and a host of other problems. Esther
Wahome’s Kuna Dawa is as frequently heard
in pubs across the country as it is in Christian churches.
Jemmima Thiong’o’s hit Mwenye Baraka
Zote is a proclamation of divine ability to provide
for all spiritually and materially. Henrie Mutuku and
David Ngubuini, both winners of Kora Awards and with
several CDs to their names, sing about a host of social
issues. This demonstrates that the youth are sensitive
to what goes on around them (Chitando 2002) and they
attempt to become part of the solution. The emergence
of gospel music especially in the nineties coupled
with the dominant themes discernable in gospel music
is a pointer to harsh socio-political and economic,
challenges facing Kenyans. The nineties marked a period
of political uncertainty and activism in the country’s
history, while death from HIV/AIDS was at its zenith.
Thousands died from the disease as poverty and corruption
bit the ordinary Kenyans hard. Hence, many gospel artists
composed songs to encourage, console and comfort and
attempt to bring solace to a disillusioned people.
Gospel Music as Popular
Culture in Kenya
[25] In the last ten years or
so, the place and role of both popular culture and
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity has expanded
in Kenyan society. This type of African Christianity,
especially the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant,
has become increasingly prominent in the media,
expounding a whole new type of popular culture (Meyer
2002; Parsitau 2006). Some scholars have called this
culture Pentecostalite culture (Meyer 2002; Parsitau
2006). A whole new popular culture has evolved around
radio and television consisting of media personalities,
review magazines and live shows (Meyer 2002; Parsitau
2006). At the same time, the new media technologies
have totally revolutionized worship and gospel music
in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches. The evolution
of new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches has ushered
in a new chapter in Kenyan gospel music scene and general
popular culture. It is in these churches that gospel
music has found new expression and consumption. The
first thing a new Pentecostal/Charismatic church will
save for is its public address system and the latest
music technology. Thus electronic instruments have
become a common feature of many Pentecostal/Charismatic
church movements. It is in the context of using modern
means of communication that these churches have been
responsible for the upsurge of gospel music and popular
culture in Kenya (Chitando 2002; Parsitau 2006). The
Pentecostal/Charismatic voice, which is aired through
such media ministries, has inspired a mass mediated
popular culture that has become quite popular with
the younger generation (Chitando 2002; Parsitau 2006).
[26] Popular culture consists primarily of the stuff
of everyday life (Brown 1978). It is mass-produced,
popular, immediately accessible and entertaining (Apondo
2005). In Kenya, popular culture comprises a complex
of distinctive expressions of life experiences and
has come to occupy a significant place in the lives
of the youth who are its primary consumers. It is therefore
an important aspect of the Kenyan youth and the mass
media has been instrumental in its evolution. The most
visible carriers of popular culture in Kenya include
music, films, fashion and language. But the greatest
carrier of popular culture in Kenya is probably popular
music, which has become the focal point of youth recreational
and spiritual activities (Apondo 2005). Popular music
encompasses a wide range of styles of both local and
international origin (Paterson 1995). Perhaps except
for sports, popular music, secular or gospel, is undoubtedly
the most conspicuous carrier of this culture.
[27] Popular culture has evolved
in modern Kenya and is fairly uniformly distributed
at least in major cities, towns and regions and
the youth are the primary consumers of this culture.
Most of today’s popular culture
is mass-produced and is disseminated through the mass
media. Through radio and television, musicians and
music fans, particularly young people, have seemingly
unlimited access to music from many different parts
of the world. Popular culture, especially music, gospel
or secular, has ushered in a new celebrity culture
in Kenya, with similar patterns to American celebrity
culture. This celebrity culture is therefore assuming
great importance in the Kenyan media scene, particularly
among the young artists. The mass media’s depiction
of American celebrities has caught up with Kenyan gospel
and secular artists who now ape the American celebrities
in dress, fashion, hairstyles, bling bling and
black American slang which is now quite current with
the Kenyan youth. The influences of African- American
youth culture are apparent in the musical styles and
some adopted names (Chitando 2003). Many gospel and
secular artists are now rapping after black American
celebrities and imitating them in fashion, tattoos
and hairdos. In fact, the American celebrities have
become romanticized images whose clothes, jewelry and
other accessories, names and acronyms become instant
fashion. Gospel music also encompasses a wide range
of styles of both local and international origin (Paterson
1995).
[28] Local gospel artists are given a fair amount of
airtime and rating on both the print and electronic
media. Although gospel music in Kenya has been around
for a long time, the 1990s saw a great deal more western
influence and the adoption of new styles and tunes
such as reggae, rap, hip-hop, soul, rhythm and blues,
jazz and Afro-fusion, that have swung into the Kenyan
gospel music scene. Rap and hip-hop are borrowed from
the Afro-American influence, reggae from the Caribbean,
country from America and Lingala and Soukous from central
Africa. Local gospel rappers have suddenly assumed
these styles and tunes. For example, Angela Chibalonza,
a Congolese gospel artist based in Kenya, sings in
Congolese styles, tunes and dance. Gospel artists such
as Rafftone and the Gospel Fathers are more hip-hop
based while S.K Blue sings gospel reggae. The youth
especially have embraced this latest phenomenon and
these artists have become household names in Kenyan
youth culture. Secular tunes and dance that are learned
from global networks are also heavily borrowed and
incorporated by gospel artists and vice versa. Thus,
the difference between secular and gospel music has
become increasingly blurred in terms of styles and
dance. This has created a lot of controversy, with
some people maintaining that Christian worship has
lost its meaning due to excessive music that erodes
the element of solemn worship (Father Maloba, Interview).
But while complains were raised about foreign tunes,
styles and dance, these artists continue to do well
in terms of money and lifestyles.
[29] Some music is, nonetheless, genuinely Kenyan with
local rhythms, tunes and styles, while some is more
western. This new wave of gospel music is creating
a form of Kenyan music that focuses on traditional
elements with the many external influences to produce
something new and interesting (Paterson 1995). Kenyan
gospel music has therefore come of age, incorporating
new styles, tunes, synthesis and acculturation. It
has also become highly developed thanks to the proliferation
of thousands of new Christian movements especially
of the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant. The attraction
of the youth to these churches is found in the increasing
appropriation and consumption of popular culture. This
has been made possible by modern means of communication
and technology that are an important feature in these
churches. The appropriation of media technologies in
these churches allows the youth to consume popular
culture indiscriminately. The content of this culture,
especially the music, is contentious. Many critics
of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches hold a
strong view that this music is excessively western
and related to the processes of globalization which
have popularized western values, particularly popular
music, at the expense of traditional African music.
The styles should, however, be understood as forming
part of popular culture in Kenya. It represents the
creative interplay between local traditional music,
Christian influences and global musical trends (Chitando
2002). The appropriation of various musical styles,
however, illustrates the complexity underlying contemporary
African artistic production (Chitando 2002).
Gospel Music
in the Kenyan Media Scene
[30] Until the early 1990s,
the government largely controlled the Kenyan media.
The Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) TV and
Radio which are owned by the government mainly served
a strong political, educational and developmental
purpose. The early nineties, however, ushered in
a period of privatisation and liberalization of
the airwaves that gave way to a rapidly evolving
private media scene (Parsitau 2006). Since then, the
Kenyan media scene has drastically changed and privately
owned commercial FM, TV stations and cable providers
have mushroomed rapidly thus radically altering the
country’s soundscape and mediascape. Kenyan TV
now consists of eleven Channels: Kenyan Television
Network (KTN), Nation TV (NTV), TBN Family TV, Sky
TV/TV Africa, Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC),
Citizen TV, Metro TV, Sauti ya Rehema (SAYARE),
and Channel Five TV. Family TV is satellite TV channel
and the main Christian channel, sponsored by America’s
Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) and Christian Broadcasting
Network (CBN). This main Christian channel mostly airs
religious programmes, and foreign televangelists from
North America such as Benny Hinn, Joel Osteen, John
Hagee, Kenneth Copeland, T. D Jakes, Myles Monroe,
Paula White and Joyce Meyer dominate the programming
probably because they are the main sponsors. However,
the channel also airs local religious programmes, particularly
live messages and sermons from local televangelists
such as Bishop Margaret Wanjiru, Mark Kariuki, Pius
Muiru, John Ng’ang’a, Wilfred Lai, J.B.
Masinde and many others. It also airs foreign and local
gospel music.
[31] When television became a popular medium of communication
in the last few decades, Pentecostal/Charismatic churches
seized the opportunity to speak directly to the public.
The new sector of African Christianity in Kenya, the
new Pentecostal/Charismatic churches, is distinguished
for its media awareness and the increasing appropriation
of media technologies (Parsitau 2005). From the 1990s
to date, gospel music has appeared on television screens
and become very popular. For example, The Stomp is
a Pentecostal musical programme that features both
local and international gospel artists and is very
popular with the Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians.
The advent of satellite TV and cable TV such as family
media has clearly impacted on gospel music in Kenya.
Cable TV together with satellite broadcasting features
religious programmes, particularly gospel music, and
airs them to many urbanites and links up local events
to the global world of Pentecostalism. Music is a vital
ingredient in all these efforts.
[32] The liberalization of airwaves
in the early 1990s also led to the explosion of
FM radio stations. There are about 21 -one FM stations
with four of these owned by religious groups, especially
those of the Pentecostal/Charismatic variety. These
are Family FM which reaches about 85% of Kenyans
throughout the country, Jesus is Lord Radio, based
in Nakuru and covering major towns in the expansive
Rift Valley Province, Baraka FM and Biblia Husema Studios
which both reach a significant number of Kenyans, and
Hope FM. Hope FM is owned by the Nairobi Pentecostal
Church (Valley road) and airs religious programmes,
particularly gospel music. Opportunities for music
outreach through media ministries, especially radio,
are abundant, and Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches
use music as part of their media ministries. Radio
broadcasting has long been popular with Pentecostal/Charismatic
churches. Most Pentecostal Churches are now involved
in radio broadcasting. The list of individual or church
related radio broadcasts, particularly gospel music
programmes, is endless, e.g.,: Sing and Shine, Gospel
Hour, Joy Bringers, Songs of Praise, Music
You Believe In and many more. In shops, private
homes, public transport, and even in bars, gospel music
competes for airspace and recognition. These Christian
radio stations ensure that gospel music, local and
international, is played round the clock. Gospel music
in Kenya has become a significant element in Kenya’s
soundscape. Yet scholars have made little mention of
gospel’s obvious importance in Kenyan society.
The relationship between Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity
and the media in Kenya has ushered in these churches
into public space.
[33] Kenya has vibrant print media and numerous newspapers,
magazines and tabloids, religious and secular, are
available. The print media now have local celebrity
corners or celebrity gossip in many newspapers and
magazines that are popular with youth and young children,
teens and pre-teens, for example, Buzz, Tickles,
Pulse and Young Nation, to mention just a few.
Religious papers and magazines have also grown greatly.
Most Pentecostal/Charismatic churches publish their
own literature and magazines, hence the emergence of
numerous religious imprints. These are The Eagle,
Revival Springs, Integrity, The Christian Lawyer and
others. Gospel music is also claiming its place in
the print media as gospel music and ratings are given
significant coverage.
[34] Developments in Information
Technology (IT) in Kenya have also helped to create
awareness and availability of music at the touch
of a button. Access to the internet is growing rapidly
and cyber cafes are opening up in major urban centres.
Many Pentecostal/Charismatic churches have gone
online too, and many of these churches have websites
of their own. These sites are accessible to congregations
and other audiences at the touch of a button and
are usually displayed on television screens at the
end of every televised message. This usually targets
a growing number of “cyber-worshippers,” especially
the youth who are into modern information technology.
The internet is the “in-thing” in Kenya
today, especially among young generations who constitute
the largest membership of Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
Through the internet, youth especially download the
latest gospel music and are constantly aware of what
is going on in the world of gospel music. These churches
are using the internet as an avenue of evangelism by
offering biblical teachings, gospel music and other
religious materials online. Locally, web designers
are cashing in on the churches’ embrace of new
technologies and create eye-catching sites for these
churches. The churches and Christian organizations
that have already launched their websites include,
The Bible Society of Kenya; www.forministry.com; Jesus
Is Alive Ministries of Bishop Margaret Wanjiru; www.jiam.org;
Deliverance Church (www.deliverancechurchkenya.org);
Family TV at www.familykenya.com.
[35] Kenya has therefore witnessed
the emergence of a vibrant media and communication
scene since the liberalization of airways in the
early nineties. Christian programmes,
particularly gospel music dominates the Christian media
while Pentecostal/Charismatic churches buy a significant
amount of airtime in the country’s private media
houses. By playing the latest audio, video and CD cassettes
from various gospel groups in the country, the media
introduce the latest Christian music to the public.
The dominance of Christian programmes on the media
scene has had an overall impact on the popularity of
gospel music, which has really flourished in this favourable
environment. Thus a vibrant mass media culture is emerging
from Kenya with indigenous funding and initiative,
although heavily inspired by their US counterparts,
copy styles and tie into global Charismatic mass media
patterns (Meyer 2003). Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity
is a media obsessed type of Christianity and their
proliferation has had a significant impact on the evolution
of gospel music.
Singing for Christ or Money: The
Economic Significance of Gospel Music
[36] Gospel music success and popularity has not been
a smooth ride for local artists who have been subjects
of intense criticism and sometimes ridicule. One of
the major concerns of the public is whether gospel
artists sing for Christ or for money. This concern
is enhanced by the fact that a number of secular artists
have crossed over from secular music to gospel music
thereof giving the impression that gospel music is
well paying. The mushrooming of recording houses and
music production has propagated these criticisms too
as an entire recording business has emerged. A celebrity
culture has equally evolved as is manifested by changed
status and lifestyles of gospel artists, who display
an affluent outlook, wear designer clothes and drive
the latest car models.
[37] Many Kenyans are therefore of the view that a
significant number of gospel artists are in the business
because of economic and financial gains while a few
are in it because they are talented artists who sing
to propagate the Christian message of salvation. Some
gospel artists deny these claims and dismiss them as
malicious and baseless although most of them do not
deny that they have benefited economically and financially
from gospel music as is evident by the changed lifestyles.
Esther Wahome argues that her life as a gospel artist
is not as glamorous as many people think. She claims
that in most cases she is not able to meet the daily
needs of her family because the returns from her music
are not as well paying as popular belief would have
it. She blames the low returns on pirating, which she
says is the single most serious challenge facing artists,
gospel or secular in the country (Esther Wahome, interview).
Christian, one of the Longombas brothers says that
pirating, which he describes as rife in Kenya, is one
of their greatest problem. Christian. However, says
that although they do not get as much as they would
like, especially from royalties and radio stations,
the group is nevertheless not complaining as they can
pay their bills and help their widowed mother. They
even managed to buy their first car recently and they
wear designer clothes (Christian, interview).
[38] The question of whether
Kenyan gospel artists sing for Christ or for money
is a tricky one, and the truth may never be known
for sure. But one thing is certain, and that is
that gospel artists are a talented lot who have
eked out a decent living for themselves through
their talents, and through gospel music many of
them have become celebrities in Kenya’s soundscape.
Thus one can appreciate the creativity of Kenyan gospel
artists and the opportunities provided to them by this
new form of African Christianity of the Pentecostal/Charismatic
variant. One can also appreciate the adaptability
of African cultural productions to processes of commercialization
in the twenty-first century. We can also celebrate
the creativity of African artists in a world where
survival and creativity compete for space in a challenging
social, cultural, political and economic environment.
[39] But it has not been a smooth ride for gospel artists
in Kenya who have come a long and bumpy way. One of
the most threatening challenges facing local artists
and producers is piracy and breach of copyright laws.
Pirated music is sold on the streets, markets and shops.
Hawkers roam the city streets oblivious of any crime
and the majority of Kenyans buy pirated tapes because
they are cheaper and just as good as legal ones. The
laws on pirating are not clear and the government is
lax about it. Hawkers are rarely arrested and Kenyans
seem unconcerned about this issue. This has forced
artists and producers to hold demonstrations against
pirating, but without much success. Others have sought
the help of the media by advertising the need to shun
pirated tapes/music. While this is a step in the right
direction, the media have a moral duty to educate and
sensitize the public about this threat and plight of
local artists, and the government needs to shun its
lax attitude and save local artists from this peril.
[40] However, despite the many
challenges facing local artists, gospel music has
cut out a niche for itself in the country’s
public space. The success of gospel music has influenced
secular artists and groups in mainline churches
to produce and record gospel music too. For example,
the hit You Are Alpha and Omega has
a Catholic background; it is shot in a catholic cathedral
with veiled nuns singing and dancing in the background,
candles, crucifixes and many other religious items.
However, the song is sung in the characteristic Pentecostal
style, a development that is described as the “pentecostalisation” or “charismatisation” of
mainline music and Christianity in Kenya. At
the same time, it has caused many secular artists to
cross over and produce gospel music, or to produce
gospel alongside secular music. While it is not an
easy task to explain the motives of gospel artists,
the fact that there is a large exodus of secular artists
crossing over to sing gospel music is evidence that
the grass is greener on the other side of the fence.
Several of Nairobi’s most famous artists have
gone from pop to gospel. Joseph Kamaru, a pillar of
Kikuyu pop since the 1960s recently disbanded his group
and formed a gospel band (Paterson 1995). Emachichi,
who regrettably passed away at the time of writing
this paper, was a secular artist but shifted to gospel
music several years ago. Other pop singers may have
gone through a transformation through conversion to
become “born again,” thus necessitating
a complete break from the past as is expected of all
converts to Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity. All,
however, agree that their songs are a call to salvation
in Jesus Christ and their songs begin from that premise.
[41] Liberalization of the airwaves
encouraged local Kenyans to venture into the area
of music production, recording and marketing. These
include producers like Teddy Josiah, the Kasanga’s and the Mwaura’s
to name just a few. Recording studios include Kijiji
records, Underground entertainment, Ogopa Deejays,
Blu Zebra Records, Holy Wave records and many others.
At the same time many Pentecostal/Charismatic churches
also run commercial recording and editing studios and
printing facilities, thereby drawing many artists who
previously would have described themselves as secular
into the realms of Pentecostalism (Collins 2002). Kenyan
is a strong Christian nation (over 70% of Kenyans profess
to be Christians) with a strong Christian ethos that
pervades the country. This Christian environment is
conducive for the growth and success of gospel music
as the majority of the population is receptive to this
kind of music. As Chitando correctly observes of the
Zimbabwean context, the appearance of this type of
Christianity as a religion of modernity put it at a
strategic advantage on the spiritual market (Chitando
2002).
[42] The success of gospel music is not only restricted
to the local scene. It has gone international too with
Gospel musicians like Alvan Gatitu, Esther Wahome,
Gospel Fathers, Dickson Thuo and the Longombas brothers
performing internationally in such countries as the
USA, Sweden, Norway, Germany, India and England. Kenyans
in the Diaspora particularly those of Pentecostal/Charismatic
traditions carry this music to their foreign lands
or even order them from their relatives back home.
Hence gospel music has crossed borders thanks to thousands
of Kenyans in Diaspora. It is estimated that more than
70,000 Kenyans live in major cities in the USA alone
while many more are scattered across the globe (Parsitau
2006), These Kenyans desire gospel music from back
home because it is culturally relevant to them. Gerrie
Ter Haar captured it well when she described Africans
in the Diaspora as being Halfway to paradise (Ter
Haar 1998). Listening to music from home while away
from home strikes accord and evokes certain emotions.
It makes them feel like at home though away from home.
Due to large numbers of Kenyans living in Diaspora,
Kenyan gospel music is slowly become a global phenomena.
They Sang
the Lord’s Song:
The Appropriation of Gospel Music in Political
Discourses in Kenya
[43] Kenyan gospel music has
not only evolved into a new thing but has also invaded
public space. It has flourished in a predominantly
Christian environment to make a mark in the country’s public space.
It has also invaded homes, market-stalls, offices and
public transport. Although Kenya is a religiously pluralistic
country, Christianity enjoys a high profile ahead of
all other religions such as African Traditional Religion,
Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. Islam particularly is
strongly asserting itself in Kenyan public space and
is vying for recognition with Christianity. However,
although the country’s constitution states that
Kenya is a secular state, the reality on the ground
is that Christianity is de facto the official
religion of the country (Chitando 2003). Christian
prayers are used in state functions with Christian
clergy officiating. While other religions are beginning
to assert themselves, Christian dominance is still
strong.
[44] On radio and Television,
Christian programmes and music, particularly of
the Pentecostal/Charismatic variant, dominate the
airwaves while the other religions are completely
absent. This has ushered Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity into public space. Mainline Christianity
is invisible in Kenya’s media scene. Gospel music,
especially Pentecostal/Charismatic, dominates the country’s
music scene with many gospel artists becoming celebrities.
In Kenya, Pentecostal/Charismatic churches provide
the highest number of gospel musicians. Gospel music
is regarded as a strategic device to spread the word
of God and bring people to repentance. By taking advantage
of a receptive Christian environment, gospel music
has carved out a place for itself in the country’s
public space so that politicians are now appropriating
gospel music tunes in their political and electoral
campaigns.
[45] In fact, since the turn
of the millennium, an emergent trend in Kenya’s political scene has
been the appropriation of gospel music in political
discourses. During political campaigns, especially
electoral politics, politicians use gospel music or
pick popular gospel hits and tunes and add their own
words to suit their political campaigns. For example,
during the 2002 election campaign, politicians turned
a popular gospel lyric “All things are possible
by faith” to “all things are possible
without Moi” (Moi is former president of the
country). Today, the main opposition party, the Orange
Democratic Movement (ODM-Kenya), has turned the gospel
lyrics “brethren don’t sleep yet for the
battle is far from over” to “Kenyans don’t
sleep yet the battle of removing president Kibaki from
power and the war for democratic space is far from
over.” Thus in these political campaigns popular
gospel songs acquire new meanings altogether and strike
a chord or evoke certain emotions among Kenyans. Kenya,
as a Christian nation, is receptive to this development
because it evokes sentimental feelings and appears
appropriate. According to Rev. Paul Mwakio of Deliverance
Church, it is better for politicians to borrow gospel
tunes than secular tunes because it means that Christianity
is making an impact on the country (Mwakio, interview
2005).
[46] The appropriation of gospel
songs in Kenyan political discourses may be understood
against the backdrop of the dominance of Christianity
in the country. As stated above, although Kenya
is a secular state constitutionally speaking, the
reality is that that Christianity is the predominant
religion of the country. Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity has therefore ushered gospel music into
public space. This has led to a kind of pentecostalisation
of public space where the boundaries between politics,
religion and entertainment have become increasingly
blurred (Meyer 2004). Rosalind Hackett notes that music
is in fact one of the most important ways in which
Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians construct their
identity and invade public space (Hackett 1998, 263).
[47] Pentecostal/Charismatic gospel music has not only
invaded public space but has also influenced music
in mainline churches. Thus mainline Christianity in
Kenya as elsewhere in Africa is incorporating Pentecostal/Charismatic
spirituality in order to survive. Kwabena notes that
the Pentecostal/Charismatic influence is so strong
that churches that refuse to incorporate it know they
face atrophy (Kwabena 2005). This has led to what is
now popularly known as the pentecostalisation and charismatisation
of mainline Christianity (Cephas Omenyo 2004). This
phenomenon has had a significant impact on mainline
Christianity in terms of worship, music and practices,
increasingly blurring the line between mainline Christianity
and its Pentecostal/Charismatic counterparts. I concur
with Cephas Omenyo, who observes that there is a major
pragmatic shift in the spirituality, theology, practices
and programmes of mainline churches (Omenyo 2002).
[48] The success and popularity
of gospel music in Kenya’s public space has
influenced secular artists and groups in mainline
churches to produce and record gospel music after
the manner of the Pentecostal/Charismatic style.
For example, the hit You Are Alpha and Omega has
a Catholic background; as noted earlier, it is shot
in a Catholic cathedral with veiled nuns singing and
dancing, candles crucifixes, etc. However, the song
is sung in the usual Pentecostal style. A quick
look at worship services in several mainline
churches, especially of the Protestant tradition, reveals
that there is a heavy borrowing of Pentecostal/Charismatic
style of music and spirituality. Thus gospel
music has not only invaded public culture but is also
revolutionizing mainline Christian worship services
and music. A survey of Kenyan mainline churches, particularly
the Protestant churches such as Presbyterian church
and African inland churches reveals that these churches
now hold youth services early on Sunday where the youth
sing, dance and worship in a characteristic Pentecostal/Charismatic
style. This is definitely a survival strategy necessitated
by the large exodus of youth from mainline churches
to Pentecostal/Charismatic churches.
“Praising
God in my Mother Tongue”: Blended Music
with an African Touch
[49] The 1990s witnessed rapid
growth and change in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches,
both in terms of worship and styles. The emergence
of megachurches and ministries created the need
for a more diverse and blended music. New paradigms
for worship and revival, together with the inclusion
and incorporation of new styles, forms and expressions
of gospel music, have since emerged. Gospel
music in Kenya, though heavily influenced by foreign
styles and tunes, however, still maintains a strong
Kenyan identity. The dances in these churches betray
certain roots and a quick look at different styles
of dance reveal immediately that the dancer is from
a particular ethnic group. Some of the rhythms and
beats resonate with traditional African music.
[50] There is also a growing shift on the Kenyan gospel
scene from hip-hop to embracing Afro-fusion styles
and tunes. Kenyans in the Diaspora who have been away
from home for along time crave for something different
from western music. Kenyans who desire a more culturally
relevant music with an African touch are propagating
for this emergent trend. This type of music is being
promoted and produced by, among others, Kijiji records,
owned by USA based Kenyan gospel group Milele singers
(Milele is a Swahili word that means forever while
Kijiji is a Swahili word which, literally translated,
means village). According to Kanji Mbugua, the owner
of Kijiji Records, their music literally takes Kenyans
back to the village or back to African roots in their
music. He asserts that his records are out to promote
gospel music with and African touch and feel. The Milele
group has three albums: Level Up, Forever and Afrique, which
have sold 40,000 copies in the US alone (Kanji 2005).
[51] Another emergent trend
in the Kenyan gospel music scene is the adoption
of vernacular languages, especially from dominant
ethnic groups such as Kikuyu, Luyhia, Dholuo, Kamba
and Kalenjin. The Kikuyu language dominates the
gospel scene with many artists singing in Kikuyu,
the language of the largest tribe in Kenya. Vernacular
gospel music is also popular, with major tribes recording
in their mother tongues. In major cities and towns,
songs in these dialects are heard blaring from the
cassette-sellers’ stalls and markets as they
compete for space and attention (Paterson 1995). The
dominance of large ethnic groups in the gospel music
scene has led to a feeling of marginalisation of minority
groups and dialects. Pentecostal/Charismatic church
services need to be sensitive to these feelings so
as not to be seen as promoting ethnic exclusiveness
and marginalization, especially when they are viewed
as churches that cut across ethnic barriers.
[52] The paper has examined the evolution, development
and significant place of gospel music in the spiritual
life of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity. These
churches that have become a significant expression of
African Christianity are the main locus of gospel music
in Kenya. This paper has shown how globalization has impacted
on the evolution of the new Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity
and popular culture, particularly gospel music. The paper
maintains that in reality gospel music, the mass media
and religion have all merged together to produce a pentecostalite
culture that is inspired by general popular culture. Gospel
music as popular culture has also led to the creation
of youth identities and a new cultural expression. It
also argues that the main attraction of these churches
is their popular cultural appeal. Popular culture is manifested
in music, films, fashion and language.
[53] The paper also observes
that these churches have demonstrated a form of
African Christianity that appeals to a new generation
of Kenyans and has facilitated the emergence of
various social groups such as women, youth and children
into public space. These social groups are contesting
religious and cultural spaces and have become successful
cultural workers in their own rights. Gospel music
has also invaded public space, and politicians are
appropriating gospel music into political discourses
in their political campaigns and rallies. Gospel
music competes for space in Kenyan homes, offices,
and markets and in public transport and has cut
for itself a niche in the country’s
public culture. Gospel music has also invaded the realm
of mainline churches and has created a shift in mainline
church worship services and music. This has led to
a Pentecostalisation and Charismatisation of mainline
Christianity in Kenya. Gospel music has also successfully
adapted itself to changing times without loosing its
Kenyan identity. In its own unique way, gospel music
as popular culture celebrates the resilience and adaptability
of Kenyan society, modern processes of globalization
and commercialization in the twenty-first century.
Gospel music in Pentecostal/Charismatic churches in
Kenya is not only attractive and refreshing but also
dynamic and contemporary. It has evolved into new versions,
styles and tunes and become a lucrative venture that
has spawned a new recording business industry (Gifford
1998). Because of the mushrooming of new Pentecostal/Charismatic
movements, gospel music is also evolving. Kenya has
therefore produced a highly developed gospel music
industry with promising prospects for the future.
References
Anderson, Allan. 2005. New African Initiated Pentecostalism
and Charismatic in South Africa. Leiden: Koninklijke
Brill NV.
_________ 2002. “The Globalisation of Pentecostalism.” Paper
presented at the Churches’ Commission on Mission,
Annual Commission Meeting, Bangor, Wales.
Apondo, Patricia Achieng. 2005. The Politics of
African Youth identities in Post-Colonial Discourse,
a paper presented at the Codesria Child and Youth
Studies Institute.
Aylward, Shorter and Njiru Joseph. 2001. New Religious
Movements in Africa. Nairobi: Pauline
Publishers.
Brown, Ray. 1978. “Popular Culture: The World
Around Us.” In Jack Nachbar, Deborah Weiser and
John L, Wright (eds). The Popular Culture Reader.
Bowling Green University Press.
Droogers, André. “Globalization and the
Pentecostal.” In In the Name of God Lies,
Frauds, Atrocities: “…the Truth shall
set you free”, www.davidicke.com.
Chitando, Ezra. 2002. Singing Culture, A Study
of Gospel Music in Zimbabwe. Uppsala, Sweden:
Nordistic Afrika Institutet.
Coleman, Simon (ed.) 2002. The Faith Movement: A
Global Religious Culture? Theme Issue, culture
and Religion 3.1.
Collins, John.1985, African Pop Roots; London Cassell
Cox, Harvey. 1996. Fire from Heaven: The Rise of
Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion
in the Twenty-first Century. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Gifford, Paul. 1999. African Christianity: Its Public
Role in Uganda and Other African Countries.
Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
________. 2004. Ghana’s
New Christianity: Pentecostalism in A Globalising
African Economy.
London: Hurst & Co.
Hackett, Rosalind, I. J. 1998. “Charismatic/Pentecostal
Appropriation of Media Technologies in Nigeria and
Ghana.” Journal of Religion in Africa 28,3:
258-77.
Hollenweger, Walter. 1972. The Pentecostals. London:
SCM.
Kwabena, Asamoah–Gyadu. 2005. “‘Born
of Water and the Spirit’: Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity in Africa.” In Ogbu Kalu (ed.), African
Christianity, An African Story. Pretoria: University
of Pretoria.
Kariuki, John. 2003. “Which
way gospel music? Conservative and liberal Christians
differ over trends.” Saturday
Nation, July 23.
Manuel, Peter.1988. Popular Music of the Non WesternWworld:
An Introductory Survey. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Marshall, Ruth. 1992. “Pentecostalism in Southern
Nigeria: An Overview.” In Paul Gifford
(ed.), New Dimensions in African Christianity. Nairobi:
All Conference of Churches, 7-32.
Maxwell, David.1998. “Delivered
from the Spirit of Poverty? Pentecostalism, Prosperity
and Modernity in Zimbabwe.” Journal of Religion in
Africa 28, 3: 355-73.
Meyer, Brigit. 2004. Pentecostalism,
Culture on Screen, Magic and Modernity in Ghana’s
New Mediascape. University of Amsterdam.
_________ 2004 “Praise the Lord, Popular Cinema
and Pentecostalite Style in Ghana’s Public Sphere.” American
Ethnologist 1: 92-110.
Ojo, Mathews. 1998, “Indigenous
Gospel Music and Social Reconstruction in Modern
Nigeria.” Missionalia 26,2:
21-231.
Omenyo, Cephas. 2002. Pentecostals outside Pentecostalism:
A Study of the Development of Charismatic Renewal
in the Mainline Churches in Ghana. Amsterdam:
Boekencentrum.
Parsitau, Damaris. 2005. “God in My Living Room:
Pentecostal Televangelism and the Electronic Church
Phenomena in Kenya in Kenya.” Unpublished manuscript.
_______. 2006. “A Religion Born to Travel:
The Globalisation of Kenyan Pentecostalism in the Twenty-First
Century.” Unpublished manuscript.
________2006. “God on Airwaves: Pentecostal/Charismatic
Christianity, Media and Public Space in Kenya.” Unpublished
manuscript.
Paterson, Douglas B. 1995. Trends in Kenyan Popular
Music. http://hometown.aol.com/dpaterson/trends.htm
Ter Haar, Gerrie. 1998. “Halfway
to Paradise”:
African Christians in Europe. Cardiff: Cardiff
Academic Press.
Interviews
Alvan Gatitu, August 7,2006.
Christian, August 8, 2006.
Esther Wahome, August 10, 2006.
Father Maloba, September 5, 2006.
Pastor Paul Mwakio, March 2006.
Kanji, interview, October 2005.
