Danielle M. Soulliere
University of Windsor

Abstract

The unrivaled publishing success and popularity of J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series has undoubtedly made it the popular culture phenomenon of the decade. But such popularity and success have also come with considerable controversy. The purpose of this paper is to examine the “moral panic” surrounding the book series, using Cohen’s classic model, and to explore the role of the Christian Right as moral entrepreneurs in generating the “Potter Panic” through various claims-making efforts and tactics. Analyses of popular discourse concerning the Harry Potter series reveal evidence of a moral panic that has spanned nearly a decade, with geographic and temporal intensity. It is argued that the Potter Panic was not full-blown, due mostly to division among Christians, and that the panic’s main legacy has been to incite debate within the larger Christian community.

Introduction

[1] Move over Postmodernism—the Western world has now entered the age of “Pottermania.” The Harry Potter book series, created by J.K. Rowling, has achieved record-setting publishing success, topping and toppling both children’s and adult’s best-selling book lists in the United Kingdom and the United States. The seven-book Harry Potter series claimed eight spots on the USA Today bestseller list (Chan 2007) while the feature films, based on the books, have also been widely successful, each drawing over $200 million in the United States and over $750 million worldwide (www.boxoffice mojo.com).

[2] But while Harry Potter has enjoyed tremendous publishing and box office success, the novels and films have also generated enormous controversy among concerned parents, educators, and various religious groups. Such concern, mainly focused on the portrayal of witchcraft and the occult in the novel series, has led to attempts to ban the books from schools and libraries and a push for Harry-free reading in some homes. According to the American Library Association (2000), the Harry Potter series topped the list of most frequently challenged books in 1999, drawing concerns from parents and educators about the books’ focus on magic and wizardry. At the more extreme end, objections to the books by some religious groups have even led to Harry Potter “book burnings” (Killinger 2002; Neal 2002; Zander 2005).

[3] It is certainly not the first time a creative work of literature has sparked concern and controversy. Other novels have stirred objections and concern. But, whether these concerns expressed over Harry Potter are simply reflective of a period of momentary hysteria or are part of a larger, more encompassing “moral panic” needs to be examined more thoroughly. Given the worldwide popularity and commercial success of Harry Potter, it is important to assess the “panic” surrounding the J.K. Rowling series, with particular attention to its intensity and impact, as well as the role of key groups and individuals in generating the “Potter Panic.”

Moral Panics

[4] A “moral panic” is best described as a period of heightened concern over some group or issue in which the societal reaction is disproportionate to the actual seriousness of the event (Cohen 1972; Goode and Ben-Yehuda 1994; Springhall 1998). There has been an increasing number of moral panics in recent years (Thompson 1998) which, according to Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994), are likely to arise in troubled times. In his classic work, Cohen (1972) outlined the characteristics of a moral panic as follows: (1) a heightened level of concern; (2) increased level of hostility toward some group; folk devils are generated; (3) substantial widespread consensus that the threat is real and serious; (4) reaction is out of proportion to the threat; and (5) relatively short-lived. Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994, 41) succinctly summarized Cohen’s model by claiming that:

What is important is that the concern locates a “folk devil”, is shared, is out of sync with the measurable seriousness of the condition that generates it, and varies in intensity over time.

[5] Moral panics typically gain momentum through claims-making efforts by groups and individuals referred to as “moral entrepreneurs” or “moral crusaders”, who employ various tactics in an attempt to influence public opinion (Goode and Ben-Yehuda 1994). The media often become an essential venue for claims-making and contribute to the generation and maintenance of the moral panic (Cohen 1972; Critcher 2003; Goode and Ben-Yehuda 1994).

[6] While media often create a space for expressing concerns over perceived threatening issues, it is also the case that moral panics have developed over concerns about media and popular culture. Springhall (1998) has discussed most extensively moral panics surrounding popular culture, liberally extending Cohen’s moral panic concept to describe panic reactions to forms of commercial entertainment such as penny theatres in the Victorian era, penny dreadfuls in the mid-nineteenth century, gangster films in 1930s America, and horror comics in the 1940s and 1950s. Others have noted contemporary moral panics involving popular culture such as the panic over comic books (Nyberg 1998), rap and hip-hop (Edsforth and Bennett 1991) and other popular music (Shuker 1998), video games (Waldron 2004) and media violence (Kline 1999; Springhall 1998), as well as trading cards and items (Cook 2001). Drotner (1992) has claimed that recurring panics about media and popular culture often target children and young people who represent most often the primary consumers.

[7] Cohen (1972) asserted that, in a moral panic, moral barricades are often manned by “right-thinking people” and that moral outrage is often driven and sustained by conservative forces. In the United States, the Christian Right has been a particularly influential group in generating moral panics over a variety of social issues including homosexuality and same-sex marriage, pornography, abortion, feminism, and media violence (Di Mauro and Joffe 2007; Greek and Thompson 2002; Hicks 2003; Murray and McClure 1996; Waldron 2004). Moreover, Christian Right groups have played a primary role in sparking moral panics over Satanism and the occult (Bromley 1992; Jenkins and Maier-Katkin 1992; Victor 1994), and have been linked to moral panics surrounding various forms of popular culture (Cook 2001; Levinson 2002; Waldron 2004). Cook (2001), for example, outlined the moral panic surrounding Pokemon-trading, pointing out the role of Christian Right leaders in denouncing the activity as evil. Likewise, Waldron (2004) has noted the Christian Right attack on role playing games (RPGs) during the late 1980s and early 1990s, creating a moral panic by claiming that RPGs, such as Dungeons and Dragons, would lead gamers to become Satanists or Pagans and then to engage in immoral and violent activities.

[8] In these examples, Christian Right interest groups attack a form of popular culture, making claims for both personal and societal moral decay, often seeking censorship or banishment as the primary political action. Several scholars have noted the preoccupation of the Christian Right with censoring and banning books, especially those written for children, that it feels contain themes contrary to traditional and fundamental religious beliefs (Hentoff 1991; Oliver 1997). Waldron (2004) noted that banning of role playing games and harassment of gamers were the primary actions effected by Christian Right moral crusaders in the RPG moral panic, while censorship seemed to be the primary goal of those conservative groups involved in the rap/hip-hop panic (Edsforth and Bennett 1991).

[9] That the Harry Potter series is an integral part of popular culture marketed primarily to children and youth, which ostensibly deals with themes perceived to be associated with the occult (magic, witchcraft, wizardry), makes it ripe for a moral panic generated and fuelled by members of the Christian Right. In this paper, I argue that the reaction to the Harry Potter books constituted a “moral panic” created by Christian Right groups and leaders, with fictional character Harry Potter emerging as the primary “folk devil.” Nevertheless, the heightened concern over Harry Potter was not a full-blown moral panic for reasons that will be outlined and discussed.

Methodology

[10] The goal of this paper is to assess the “moral panic” surrounding the Harry Potter book series, liberally using Cohen’s model as a guide, and to examine the role of the Christian Right in creating the panic. This assessment is achieved through an analysis of popular discourse and an examination of the debates concerning the Harry Potter series and films through various media sources. More specifically, the following questions are attended to in assessing the nature, intensity, and impact of the moral panic: (1) Who were the individuals or groups involved in the claims-making process which contributed to the moral panic surrounding Harry Potter? (2) What claims or concerns were expressed forming the underlying impetus for the panic? (3) How were these claims and concerns disseminated? What tactics were used in the claims-making process? (4) Where did the moral panic originate and sustain itself? (5) When did the moral panic take hold and peak? (5) Why did the panic happen?

Results

[11] Examination of the popular discourse and debate concerning J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series reveals evidence of a moral panic, as classically outlined by Cohen (1972), with some slight, but not unexpected, variations. To be sure, there has been heightened concern over the books expressed by parents, educators, religious groups, and activist organizations that could be considered disproportionate to the actual threat posed by the stories, characters, and the author of the series. Moreover, this heightened concern seems to have generated hostility aimed at the books and its characters, essentially casting Harry Potter and, by extension his creator, as appropriate “folk devils.” While there has been widespread consensus among certain groups in order to effectively launch the “Potter Panic”, a considerable amount of dissention has also been present, which needs to be taken into consideration. Finally, while moral panics tend to be “relatively short-lived” (Cohen 1972), the controversy and concern surrounding the Harry Potter series has spanned an entire decade. Nevertheless, Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994) suggest that moral panics may vary in intensity over time; in this case, the moral panic over Harry Potter has come in waves, surfacing in accordance with the release of a new book in the series and/or book-based feature film.

[12] In assessing the intensity of the Potter Panic, I argue that, though the reaction to the Harry Potter series fits Cohen’s classic moral panic model, this was not a full-blown moral panic for reasons that will later be discussed. Also, clear evidence points to waves of intensity in the panic rather than simply an intense panic peak. In addition, though the panic seems to have had some hold in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, it appears at its most strong in the United States, suggesting geographic as well as temporal intensity.

The Role of the Christian Right

[13] Concerns about the Harry Potter series have been voiced most strongly by persons, groups, and organizations affiliated with the Christian Right. The Christian Right has been loosely defined as a social movement (Deerman 2002) or moral protest movement (Victor 1994) that is opposed to modernist-liberal theology and to any acceptance of changes in traditional cultural values and social norms (Marsden 1991). According to Victor (1994), members of the Christian Right hold an ultra-conservative ideology based on a version of orthodox, evangelical Protestantism that is sometimes referred to as Christian fundamentalism. In essence, the Christian Right is a “cultivated collection of interest groups” (Lugg 2001) comprised of religious authority figures, such as clergymen and Christian writers, and key organizations (Victor 1994). Pulling together these various definitions, groups, organizations, and persons who emphasize traditional values, express conservative ideals, promote evangelist or fundamentalist beliefs, and/or adhere to strict biblical authority are considered members of the Christian Right.

[14] The Christian Right in the Potter Panic encompasses a highly eclectic group. First, key American organizations involved in voicing concerns and engaging in claims-making include Focus on the Family, Eagle Forum, Traditional Values Coalition, Mission America, Concerned Women for America, American Family Association, Renew America, the John Birch Society, and The Barna Group. Commonalities linking these organizations as belonging to the Christian Right include the promotion of traditional values and a conservative ideology as well as a Judeo-Christian worldview, primacy of the family, and emphases on biblical foundations and authority.

[15] Religious groups and leaders from the Christian Right in the United States also comprised those expressing concern about J.K. Rowling’s popular series. The most vocal of these have included Berit Kjos of Crossroad Ministries; Pastor Glen Spencer of the Vernon Independent Baptist Church; Pastor Joseph Chambers of Paw Creek Ministries; David Bay of Cutting Edge Ministries; and Matthew J. Slick of the Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry. Again, what appears to link these groups and their religious leaders to each other and to the Christian Right is a focus on fundamentalism or evangelism, orthodoxy and defense of the Christian worldview, and a strong emphasis on biblical inerrancy and authority.

[16] Additionally, a number of media organizations which support and are aimed at members of the Christian Right have been involved in both debating and expressing concern over Harry Potter. These include periodical media such as Christianity Today, Charisma Magazine, and Catholic Insight Magazine; newswire service media such as WorldNet Daily and The Baptist Press; and television and film media such as the Christian Broadcasting Network and Jeremiah Films.

[17] Strong voices in opposition to the Harry Potter series have also come from key Christian Right individuals, including most notably cult author/journalist Richard Abanes; film critic and media pundit Ted Baehr; fundamentalist Christian and self-described authority on alternative religions William Schnoebelen; Marcia Montenegro of Christian Answers for the New Age (CANA); film-maker Caryl Matrisciana; Catholic author Michael D. O’Brien; and David J. Stewart, webmaster for jesus-is-savior.com. Adding to the debate within the conservative faction, though decidedly more pro-Potter, have been the voices of former youth minister Connie Neal; language and literature scholar John Granger; theologian and former pastor Rev. Dr. John Killinger; BreakPoint host Chuck Colson; and Wheaton College professor Alan Jacobs. Moreover, conservative Christian parents and educators have also joined the claims-making endeavors driving the Potter Panic (see Olsen 1999).

[18] Interestingly, not only does an examination of the popular discourse and debate surrounding Harry Potter reveal Christian Right groups and individuals as key moral entrepreneurs in the creation of the Potter Panic, but within discourse and debate, concern, fear, and panic over the books have been attributed by others to members of the Christian Right. For example, Rees (2000) highlighted the role of “well-organized right fundamentalist organizations” in mounting censorship campaigns in response to the Harry Potter books, while Mooney (2000) asserted that the concern over Harry Potter has largely been expressed by “religious conservatives”, most notably evangelicals. As well, Miller (2007) has called attention to the “right-wing” and “conservative Christian leaders” involved in demonizing the popular J.K. Rowling series.

Claims-Making

[19] Christian Right groups, organizations, and individuals have effectively served as key moral entrepreneurs in the creation of the Potter Panic by engaging in various claims-making activities. Most notably, claims have centered on arguments that the books: (1) promote and/or glamorize witchcraft and the occult; (2) present anti-Christian themes/messages/worldview; (3) produce curiosity in and encourage desensitization to witchcraft and the occult; (4) are morally ambiguous and spiritually harmful; and (5) expose young readers to inappropriate content.

[20] The central claim supporting Christian Right concerns about the Harry Potter series has been that the books promote and glamorize witchcraft and the occult. For some, the offence lay in the books’ portrayal of actual witchcraft and occult symbolism and practices, which are strictly condemned in the Bible. For example, in his book Harry Potter and the Bible, Richard Abanes (2001) has asserted that occult symbolism abounds in the novels, while Steve Bonta (2000), writing for The New American, a bi-weekly newsmagazine of the conservative John Birch Society, pointed out that occult symbols, which are associated with both the hero and the villain, fill the pages of the Potter books. Marcia Montenegro (2000), Pastor Glen Spencer (2002), Matthew Slick (2003), and Berit Kjos (2004) have all contended that Rowling incorporates actual occult practices into her books, while David Bay of Cutting Edge Ministries has vociferously maintained that the Harry Potter books depict real witchcraft including actual beliefs and rituals. Despite these claims, however, others both in and outside the Christian Right circle have argued that the magical practices presented by Rowling bear no resemblance to real-world witchcraft or occultism, and are simply metaphoric (Greene 2005), fantastic (Greydanus 2000), mechanical/ technological (Jacobs, A. 2001; Ostling 2003), and stereotypical (Beam 2004).

[21] Other claims have centered on the notion that, while the books may not accurately portray real-world witchcraft and occult practices, the stories and characters nevertheless glamorize witchcraft and the occult through positive portrayals. This, in turn, has effectively led to the normalization or mainstreaming of witchcraft and occult practices. Writing for The Trumpet, a newsmagazine of the Philadelphia Church of God, Dennis Leap (1999) expressed that the Harry Potter books “glorify witchcraft and wizardry as a way of life”, effectively popularizing and publicizing witchcraft. Mike Oppenheimer (2002) of Let Us Reason, a cult evangelist ministry, has likewise asserted that Rowling’s books are “glorifying and mainstreaming witchcraft to children” by making the occult attractive and exciting. Furthermore, in the video documentary Harry Potter: Witchcraft Repackaged, produced by Jeremiah Films, Caryl Matrisciana (2001) has also argued that witchcraft and the occult are normalized in the Potter books, cautioning that “evil” is repackaged in a fun, fascinating, and alluring way.

[22] A second claim by Christian Right groups and individuals in support of the heightened concern surrounding Harry Potter has been that the book series presents anti-Christian themes and messages and promotes a distinctly anti-Christian worldview. Fundamentalist Christian William Schnoebelen (2000) has argued, for example, that the books, rather than presenting themes that reflect a Christian perspective, promote a clear Agnostic worldview. Homeschooling Christian mother Teri Ann Berg Olsen (2000) has further contended that children who read the Harry Potter books are confronted with two distinctly non-Christian worldviews: secularism and occultism. Likewise, Pastor Joseph Chambers (2001) has vociferously maintained that the books embrace the Pagan/Wiccan worldview. Comparing the themes of Harry Potter with Lord of the Rings, Baehr and Snyder (2003) have declared that the Potter books oppose biblical Christianity and reflect a pagan, Gnostic, and nominalistic worldview. Nevertheless, others have argued that a deeper analysis and understanding of Rowling’s novels reveal an underlying and decidedly Christian theme and worldview. Most strongly, scholar John Granger (2004) has pointed out the “implicit Christian content of the books” (xx) and “profoundly Christian meaning at the core of the series” (xviii), concluding that the Harry Potter books are consistent with and foster a Christian worldview. In like fashion, theologian Rev. Dr. John Killinger (2000) has made note of the Christian references and structure inherent in the books, suggesting that the books are highly dependent on the Christian understanding of life. Neal (2002) has also argued that the “general themes of each book uphold and promote foundational beliefs and Judeo-Christian values emphasized throughout the Bible” (5), which make Rowling’s books distinctly Christian in nature. Moreover, Christian radio talk show host Gregory Koukl (2001) has reasoned that, despite claims that the books are anti-Christian, Harry Potter could be read as a redemptive analogy and is therefore Christ-centered. Similarly, in her book The Mystery of Harry Potter, Catholic writer Nancy Carpentier Brown (2007) has asserted that Rowling has cleverly packaged a Christian story through the Potter tales by presenting a redemptive moral story that has Christian undertones, despite the series’ ostensive witchcraft wrapping. In a recent Christianity Today article, Bruno (2007) put forth the argument that “Harry Potter 7 is Matthew 6”, calling attention to the number of biblical Christian themes inherent in Deathly Hallows. Even though these others have presented sound reasoning and evidence for their counter-claims that Rowling infuses Christianity into the Harry Potter books, anti-Potter critics have continued to maintain that the books are diametrically opposed to Christianity. In a Christian Broadcasting Network interview (Elliot 2007), Richard Abanes declared:

There is this whole movement within Christianity where people are trying to say that the Harry Potter books are Christian novels. And that is just untrue. You can’t interpret it that way.

[23] Even more appalling, some have said, is the clear anti-Christian bigotry that comes across in the Potter books. Marcia Montenegro (2000) and Jim Duke (2004) have both argued that Rowling clearly mocks and ridicules those who oppose witchcraft or do not accept magic, which can be interpreted as a “direct shot toward Christians” (Duke 2004). O’Brien (2001, 2007) likewise has pointed out that conservative-thinking people in Rowling’s books, who object to the occult and embrace traditional values (presumably conservative Christians and members of the Christian Right), are constructed as “bad” and “abusive hypocrites.” Mission America president Linda Harvey (2007) has further contended that the Harry Potter books foster anti-Christian bigotry:

The message that screams from these pages for children to absorb is that these despicable people who object to “magic” are worthy of the worst scorn …Our children quickly figure out that Muggles equate to traditional conservatives.

In response to these claims, Potter supporters have made note that the books deal appropriately and importantly with issues of discrimination and prejudice (Bohlin 2001; Granger 2004) and that critics pay undue attention in their assessment to the Dursley characters and ignore positive portrayals of other “muggles” in the story.

[24] Some Christian Right groups and individuals have claimed that the most explicit danger associated with the Harry Potter books is that they produce a curiosity in and desensitization to witchcraft and the occult, which may ultimately lead young readers to become involved with occult practices or a Wiccan lifestyle. Some, such as Linda Harvey (2007) and Trumpet contributor Mark Nash (2001) have argued that not only has interest in witchcraft and occultism increased among teens in recent years, but that such interest has largely been sparked by popular literature like the Harry Potter book series. Both Harvey and Nash offer proof of their assertions by pointing to statements made by the Pagan Federation of England and research conducted under the direction of The Barna Group (see Kinnamon 2006), which conclude that interest in witchcraft and the occult have increased especially among adolescents and point to popular culture depictions of witchcraft and occultism as one possible reason for this. On their website (www.afa.net/), the American Family Association includes a summary of Kinnamon’s research, claiming that the report emphasizes that exposure to Harry Potter has doubled in the past few years and that the books have increased interest in witchcraft among a small percentage of readers. What fails to be mentioned, however, is that Kinnamon qualifies this finding by noting that many of the teens surveyed who indicated an increased interest in witchcraft from reading Harry Potter were already involved in witchcraft-related activities prior to the exposure. Likewise, claims of increased interest in Paganism and witchcraft among adolescents have tended to downplay the broader popular cultural context that includes more than Rowling’s book series as potential influences in generating curiosity.

[25] Some have asserted that the problem with Harry Potter is that the books desensitize young readers to witchcraft and occult practices, making them more accepting of a non-Christian worldview (Beam 2005; Kjos 1999; Slick 2003). Such desensitization, concerned Christians have maintained, is not only spiritually harmful but may open the door to becoming interested in or involved with witchcraft or occultism. Others have countered that pagan practices like witchcraft have effectively become mainstreamed through popular culture and that the Harry Potter books themselves, especially in isolation, cannot directly influence readers to take up witchcraft.

[26] On a more serious level, a number of Christian Right individuals have proclaimed that the Harry Potter novels do more than just desensitize or produce curiosity; rather, the books introduce and indoctrinate young readers into witchcraft and the occult (Chick 2001; Jacobs, C. 2001; Kjos 2004; Merkle 1999; Meyer 2000; Shaw 2000; Wood 2000). For example, Pastor David J. Meyer (2000) of Last Trumpet Ministries International, has professed that the Harry Potter books are nothing less than “orientational and instructional manuals of witchcraft woven into the format of entertainment.” Similarly, Cindy Jacobs (2001), writing for Charisma Magazine, has alleged that the “Harry Potter books and others like them are entry-level occult tools that introduce readers to witchcraft…”, while gospel literature publisher and comic book artist Jack Chick (2001) has maintained that the books provide “a basic initiation into witchcraft for a whole new generation.” Nevertheless, it has been recognized that these concerns may have been spurred by a widely circulated article posted on The Onion, a satirical website that suggested that kids reading Harry Potter were turning into “little witches and wizards.” (Mattingly 2001).

[27] Aside from the claims surrounding the presentation of witchcraft and occultism in the Potter books, some have voiced concerns about the moral ambiguity/relativism and spiritual harm presented by the books. Most strongly, Abanes (2001) has contended that the books present situations that are morally ambiguous and foster ethical confusion. Referring to what he calls “Potterethics,” Abanes has noted that Harry and his friends routinely lie, cheat, steal, break rules, and disobey without consequences, suggesting a “highly subjective and changeable code of right and wrong” (68). Similarly, Berg Olsen (2000) and O’Brien (2001) have emphasized the moral relativism presented in the Potter books, both pointing out that Harry’s disobedience is often overlooked and even rewarded and that Rowling seems to glorify the fact that Harry often does the wrong thing for the right reasons. Moreover, Christian apologetic Marsha West (2007) has further expressed concern that kids who read Harry Potter are presented at every turn of the page with bad role models who spurn authority and are willfully disobedient. Others, commenting on the morality presented in Rowling’s book series, have argued that, despite some ambiguity, there are clear moral lessons found in the books (Bohlin 2001). Indeed, Kern (2003) has argued that Rowling’s works present an updated Stoic moral system, which emphasizes choices and actions in defining moral character. In further defense of the moral relativism presented by the books, Killinger (2000), perhaps directing his argument specifically towards Abanes, has pointed out that conservative Christians often forget that, like Harry, Jesus invariably exhibited disrespect for rules and regulations, especially when they were followed for their own sake or stood in the way of some worthy goal or achievement. Neal (2003) has further countered the “bad role model” argument, citing Tony Campolo’s views on Harry Potter, which suggest that, in choosing the right friends and making the right choices, Harry can be considered a great role model for kids.

[28] More than the moral ambiguity of the Potter novels has been the claim that they are spiritually harmful. Such harm encompasses a variety of notions. First and foremost is the claim that the books do not acknowledge God or any other supernatural power (Beam 2005; Grossman 2007; Murray 2000; O’Brien 2007). Exploring the godlessness of the Harry Potter series in a Time Magazine article, popular author Lev Grossman (2007) asked, “If you want to know who dies in Harry Potter, the answer is easy: God.” Grossman’s conclusion stems from his assessment that Rowling has created a fantasy world free of any religion or spirituality in which secular and bureaucratized technology has superseded the sacred. In a similar vein, Michael O’Brien (2007) has extolled the death of God in Harry Potter, noting that “Potterworld will admit no absolute hierarchy in creation.” Moreover, while conceding there are many positive aspects to the books, Lindy Beam (2005) of Focus on the Family has cautioned parents regarding the potential spiritual harm of the series in failing to acknowledge the existence of God: “The spiritual fault of Harry Potter is not so much that it plays to dark supernatural powers but that it doesn’t acknowledge any supernatural powers or moral authority at all.” Each of these arguments stresses the potential danger in leading less discerning readers into a spiritually confusing or non-existent realm. Nevertheless, others have countered that, though not explicit, God is very much a part of Harry Potter’s world and that the godless view of the series reflects a misunderstanding of the books and a failure to recognize the spiritual (and biblical) elements in the stories (Granger 2004; Killinger 2000).

[29] Secondly, it has been claimed that spiritual harm may come from consistently and effectively blurring the lines between “good” and “evil” in the books. Bonta (2000) and Kjos (2001) have both contested that, while the books deal with the overarching theme of Good versus Evil, Rowling incorporates a strong element of Eastern dualism in that the line between “good” and “evil” is often not clear. As Bonta (2000) has explained:

Rather than dealing with good versus evil in the Christian sense of the terms, where evil is understood always to be subordinate to omnipotent Good, the Potter stories come across more as dualist allegories, where, as in dualist heresies of every age, good and evil are regarded as coeval, warring equals —different sides, as it were, of the same cosmic coin.

It has often been pointed out that “good” characters (such as Harry and his friends) participate in “evil” actions (witchcraft) and that the central “good” character (Harry) and the central “evil” character (Voldemort) are necessarily intertwined. The problem, as Bonta and others (see Abanes 2001; Montenegro 2000) have argued is that not only is this blending of good and evil anti-Christian and unbiblical, but it further creates confusion in readers, which can have harmful spiritual repercussions. In an article posted on the Tradition in Action website, Marian Horvat (2000) has suggested that the tremendous confusion created between good and evil in the Potter books can lead to spiritual confusion in readers, especially young readers, since children not only need but seek absolutes. Similarly, writing for the Education Reporter, a publication of the Christian Right group Eagle Forum, Stan Watson (2000) has asserted that it is confusing to young readers to suggest that there is a “good side” to witchcraft and that this may result, however inadvertently, in breaking down a child’s natural aversion to the evils of witchcraft.

[30] Despite these claims of potential spiritual harm resulting from the dualistic blurring of “good” and “evil”, others have contended that Rowling has taken great care to ensure that “good” and “evil” are at least clear, if not absolute (Granger 2004; Jacobs, A. 2001; Killinger 2000). Killinger (2000) has conceded that “good” and “evil” are, after all, a complicated business and are dealt with in the Potter books in like fashion. Alan Jacobs (2001) has further given Rowling credit for dealing with “good” and “evil” in a very realistic way:

The clarity with which Rowling sees the need to choose between good and evil is admirable, but still more admirable … is her refusal to allow a simple division of parties into the good and the evil. Harry is unquestionably a good, but not perfect, boy whose virtues arise from his recognition that he is not inevitably good.

For these Potter supporters, it is not so much spiritual harm but spiritual discernment that is created by blurring good with evil.

[31] For many Christian Right groups and individuals, it is not enough that the popular Harry Potter books are filled with occult symbolism and witchcraft, promote a non-Christian worldview, endorse characters that are bad role models, and perpetuate spiritual confusion. It is also the case that much of the content is inappropriate for children, the primary group of readers for which the books are written and marketed. These detractors point to the violence, profanity, death, cruelty, unkindness, lack of respect, hate, obscenity, and twisted sense of humour prevalent throughout the books and movies (Abanes 2001; Beam 2001; Berg Olsen 2000). In response, others have countered that the books contain increasingly mature content to reflect the increasing maturity of the readers and that the content not only aptly mirrors real life but may actually be less graphic than other popular culture children’s literature and film.

[32] In sum, claims-making by Christian Right groups and individuals focused around these central points have effectively contributed to the moral panic surrounding the Harry Potter book series. Moreover, many of these claims have not been sufficiently supported or have been strongly countered by credible others, suggesting that the concerns expressed over Harry Potter have been disproportionate to the actual threat posed by the books.

Dissemination and Tactics

[33] Claims have been disseminated not only through the larger media corporations that support the beliefs of and are primarily aimed at Christian Right consumers (such as Christianity Today, Christian Broadcasting Network, WorldNet Daily), but claims-makers have made effective use of various media in getting their message across. Indeed, Kintz and Lesage (1998) have maintained that the Christian Right have made highly effective use of television, radio, and video to communicate their conservative Christian message, while Irvine (2005) has noted that the Internet has also become a popular new communication tool for religious conservatives. In the Potter Panic, media claims-making venues have included: (1) Books; (2) Periodicals and newsletters (for example, Plugged In, Education Reporter, Trumpet Magazine); (3) Websites (for example, Christian Parents Network, jesus-is-savior.com); (4) Reports (for example, Kinnamon’s report for The Barna Group), (5) Film/Video/Audio CD (for example, Harry Potter: Witchcraft Repackaged video, Parental Concerns About Harry Potter CD);

(6) Radio and television (for example, BreakPoint, Stand to Reason, The 700 Club); and even (7) Comics (for example, Jack Chick’s “Chick Tracts”). Of course, some of these media reach a far wider audience than others. For example, Christianity Today has a far wider distribution than, say, the Philadelphia Church of God’s Trumpet Magazine. Also, the video Witchcraft Repackaged produced by Jeremiah Films likely has had a larger viewership than Paw Creek Ministries’ video Clouds of Darkness. Nevertheless, within certain groups and communities, these media have figured importantly in getting the Christian Right message about Harry Potter across to members of their own group as well as others.

[34] Christian Right groups and individuals have used a variety of tactics in the claims-making process. One prominent tactic to support the claim that the witchcraft and occultism presented in Harry Potter are condemned by God has been to quote Scripture. The most common biblical passage evoked is Deuteronomy 18:10-14 but claims-makers have also sometimes included other biblical passages (Galatians 5:19-21; Exodus 22:18; Matthew 13:9-16) to show that witchcraft and occult practices—such as sorcery, divination, mediums, conjuring and casting spells, necromancy, fortune-telling, and charming—are specifically prohibited in the bible and therefore prohibited by God. Others have pointed out that such claims can only be substantiated with a strict literal interpretation of the bible. Regarding Scripture, Koukl (2001) has, importantly, also noted that the biblical command is that we do not do these things—reading Harry Potter or seeing the movie, however, is not an example of doing these things.

[35] A second tactic employed has been an attempt to incite fear. This has been notably conveyed by warnings and alarming statements made to members of a group or to the community at large. As an example, David Bay of Cutting Edge Ministries has made several statements on his website (www.cuttingedge.org/) that are intended to trigger fear and alarm: “[The Harry] Potter books are so overtly Satanic they are designed to quickly put Satan’s key in the lock of your children’s hearts! Truly, the End of the Age is upon us.” Similarly, Pastor Mike Norris of the Franklin Road Baptist Church has offered several warnings to members of his congregation about the books on his website (www.frbc.com/): “I’m warning you: these Potter books are nothing but witchcraft!”; “It is nothing less than Satanic indoctrination.”; “…this is wicked, heavy-duty stuff—nothing but the work of the Devil!” Moreover, David J. Stewart has included many alarming subheadings in the Harry Potter section of his website (www.jesus-is-savior.com), including: “The Abomination of Harry Potter!”; “Harry Potter is of the Devil!”; “Exposing the Evils of Harry Potter!”

[36] One of the most common tactics to lend credibility to claims made is to make use of expert knowledge. There is evidence that the Christian Right in the Potter Panic have attempted to support their claims by quoting and referring to those identified as occult or cult “experts,” especially those who oppose Rowling’s books. For example, several of those involved in the claims-making fuelling the panic have quoted or have referred to both Marcia Montenegro and Caryl Matrisciana as “occult experts” or “cult experts,” in an attempt to lend credibility to their claims (see Chick 2001; Foster 2001; Kleder 2001). In addition, both Jack Roper (2000) and Berit Kjos (2001, 2004) have identified themselves as cult researchers in outlining their arguments against the Potter books. Importantly, others who may also be considered “experts” (such as Edmund Kern, a historian who specializes in the study of witchcraft) but who support the books, have not been quoted or referred to by Christian Right claims-makers. This suggests that the tactic of employing expert knowledge to support and lend credibility to claims may involve a very deliberate and perhaps selectively biased approach.

[37] Claims-makers themselves have also claimed “expert” or “insider” knowledge based on their past experiences with witchcraft, occultism, or Satanism as a further tactic to lend credibility to claims. A surprising number of Christian Right claims-makers in the Potter Panic have identified themselves as having been previously involved with witchcraft, Satanism, the occult, or New Age practices including: Marcia Montenegro (former astrologer); William Schnoebelen (former Satanist); Clare McGrath Merkle (former New Age healer); David J. Meyer (ex-witch); and Steve Wood (former New Ager). Presumably, since they have knowledge of such beliefs and practices from first-hand experience, these claims-makers would be more readily able to recognize these non-Christian elements in the Harry Potter and other books and would therefore be perceived as credible sources in outlining the dangers of the works.

[38] In concert with this expert/insider knowledge tactic has often been the reporting of endorsement by currently practicing Wiccans, pagans, and occultists for the argument that the Harry Potter novels present and promote witchcraft and the occult. For example, Abanes (2001) has written that “the connection between Rowling’s books and actual occultism is so unmistakable that even occultists themselves see it.” (127). While former witches and occultists turned Christians have made the claim that the witchcraft and occult practices presented in the Potter books mirror those practiced contemporarily, many others have reported that modern-day Wiccans and Pagans expressively deny that Rowling’s Potter world of witchcraft has any link to their own beliefs or practices, while admitting they are pleased that witches are at least being portrayed positively (see Glidewell 2001; Hajela 2000).

[39] Finally, “mudslinging” has been a tactic used by the Christian Right not only to fuel the Potter Panic through claims-making but to cast the author, along with her literary hero, as an appropriate “folk devil.” Christian Right claims-makers have launched various attacks against J.K. Rowling including more overtly questioning her religious beliefs, lifestyle, and character, and more subtly raising concerns about her intentions and influence. Accusations have been levied that Rowling is not a Christian (Abanes 2001; Berg Olsen 2000; Duke 2004) and may even be involved in witchcraft because of her sophisticated knowledge of the occult (Abanes 2001; Matrisciana 2001) and her stated fondness for Halloween (Allan 2000; Berg Olsen 2000). Jim Duke (2004) of Trinity Worship Christian Fellowship in Albany, New York has all but accused Rowling of being a Satanist in writing that:

It was the goal of Satanists such as Aleister Crowley, Helena Blavatsky, and Albert Pike to use the entertainment arena to make magic popular and acceptable. Rowling helps carry that out.

Additionally, some have directly or indirectly attacked Rowling’s character and lifestyle, commenting especially that she was a divorced mother living on social assistance when she wrote the books (Merkle 1999; Oppenheimer 2002), further deviantizing Harry Potter’s creator and casting her as “folk devil” alongside the literary wizard boy.

The Potter Panic Decade in the United States

[40] While similar concerns about the Harry Potter books have been raised by religious groups, educators, and parents in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom (see Fountain 2000; Goodenough 2000; Shaw 2000), the strongest and most vocal opposition to the popular series has come from groups and individuals in the United States. This is not surprising as the Christian Right has had a much stronger foothold in the U.S. than in these other countries as well as the power to engage in claims-making activities that have the potential to fuel a moral panic. Moreover, although expression of concerns about the books seems to have spanned the time period from 1997 through 2007, the evidence suggests, based on the sheer number of written commentaries, that there has been a concentration of expression in the years 2000 and 2001. The mostly likely explanation for this “panic peak” is that 2000 was the year that the first three books in the Harry Potter series became widely available through the American publishing company, Scholastic Books, followed by the release of the fourth book in the series, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, while 2001 saw the release of the first feature film, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. The general social and international political climate leading up to the events of 9/11 in 2001 may have also contributed to this slight peak in the Potter Panic since it is not unusual for moral panics to erupt during troubled times (Goode and Ben-Yehuda 1994). Nevertheless, despite this concentration in the panic over the book series, expression of concerns and claims-making activities by key moral entrepreneurs have continued across the decade from the release of the first book in 1997 to the release of the final book in 2007, with “waves” corresponding with the release of a new book in the series and/or the release of a book-based feature film (see Table 1).

TABLE 1: BOOK AND FILM RELEASES

The Legacy of the Potter Panic

[41] The heightened concern over Harry Potter was not a full-blown moral panic for several possible reasons. Firstly, a full-blown Potter Panic was likely thwarted by the division among Christians, even conservative right-wing Christians, in the Potter debate. This division can especially be seen in the divergent opinions and views expressed in the Christian Right publication Christianity Today and the resultant backlash suffered by many CT authors who offered praise or support for the Potter books. Similarly, although Focus on the Family’s president James Dobson has officially denounced the Harry Potter books and products (see Jackson 2007), reviewers for the FOTF publication Plugged In, including Lindy Beam, have consistently outlined both the positive and negative aspects of the books and movies.

[42] Secondly, it would appear that the most vocal anti-Potterites have been situated in smaller fundamentalist or evangelical factions of the Christian Right, including independent churches and ministries (for example, Cutting Edge Ministries, Crossroad Ministries, Trinity Worship Christian Fellowship, Vernon Independent Baptist Church, Franklin Road Baptist Church, Let Us Reason Ministries, Paw Creek Ministries, Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry, Philadelphia Church of God, and Last Trumpet Ministries), rather than within larger and more influential Christian Right organizations. While it is likely that the anti-Potter message put forth by and the claims-making efforts of these ministerial groups have reached members of their congregational in-groups somewhat effectively, such groups tend to lack the power and credibility to force widespread consensus. To be sure, some of the strongest and most powerful Christian Right organizations in the United States such as the Christian Coalition of America and the Moral Majority Coalition (now the Faith and Values Coalition) have had no explicit or expressed opinion regarding the Harry Potter books. Additionally, the strong voices of pro-Potter conservative Christians such as Connie Neal, Chuck Colson, Gregory Koukl, and John Killinger have likely contributed to the tempering of the panic surrounding Rowling’s series.

[43] Thirdly, the claims-making activities of Christian Right groups and individuals may not have been optimally effective due to ambiguity surrounding religious terminology. The Harry Potter books have been accused of presenting and promoting occultism, witchcraft, sorcery, Wicca, New Ageism, Gnosticism, Paganism, Satanism, Eastern dualism, and atheism, as well as praised for its apparent themes of Christianity. The problem is that these various terms are neither synonymous nor interchangeable. For example, while Wicca is a pagan religion, not all Wiccans practice witchcraft; paganism is not the same as atheism and the practice of witchcraft is not Satanism; “occult” and “occultism” seem to be catch-all categories that could refer to any number of activities, but not necessarily witchcraft, sorcery, or New Age practices. In using such terms without adequate clarification, claims-making efforts may well have been no more effective than simply using the broader labels of “bad” and “evil.” To be sure, it is likely very difficult to gain and sustain the momentum of a panic when the folk devil seems to be wearing so many hats.

[44] Fourthly, a full-blown Potter Panic may not have been realized due to the notion that, increasingly, Christian Right groups and individuals are being thought of as extremists who should not be taken seriously. This has been exemplified in parodies of conservative Christian views concerning the Harry Potter series, most notably included on the satirical websites The Onion (www.theonion.com), Landover Baptist Church (www.landoverbaptist.org) and “America’s Best Christian”, Betty Bowers (www. bettybowers.com).

[45] Finally, the steadfast attention necessary to fuel and adequately sustain the Potter Panic over the last decade may have been periodically diverted by other books (and authors) targeted for conservative criticism during this time period. These include Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials series as well as Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code. Focus on these other books thought to espouse anti-Christian or atheist beliefs may have served to momentarily divert conservative Christian attention away from the Potter books, effectively tempering the panic.

[46] Additionally, it can be argued that, in terms of impact, the Potter Panic has been relatively soft, primarily inciting debate within the larger Christian community rather than bringing about any legislative or policy changes. Though censorship efforts by moral entrepreneurs have been evident through attempts to ban the Harry Potter books from schools and libraries (McCuen 2000; Olsen 1999) and to prevent the books from being read aloud in classrooms (Keim 2000; McCuen 2000; Ross 2000), these efforts have been mostly unsuccessful or have had little impact beyond smaller groups and communities. And while some religious leaders have urged their congregational members to burn or destroy the Potter books (Norris 2004; Zander 2005), there is no evidence that book burning has occurred on a wide scale in any area of the United States. The legacy of the Potter Panic seems to be mostly in inciting debate, at times contentious, within the larger and diverse Christian community (see Creegan 2000; Jackson 2007; Toalston 2000; Wingfield 2001). This debate has raged for nearly a decade and has encompassed Christians from diverse religious groups as well as from varying backgrounds.

Conclusion

[47] Heralded as “the cultural mass phenomenon of the age” (Neumann 2006, 81), J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series has been the subject of both praise and controversy. Using Cohen’s (1972) classic model and Goode and Ben-Yehuda’s (1994) summary and clarifications, it has been argued that a moral panic surrounding Harry Potter emerged specifically in the United States during the 1997-2007 time period, with waves of intensity and a somewhat limited impact. More specifically, the “Potter Panic” was generated by groups and individuals associated with the Christian Right, through various claims-making efforts and tactics, which effectively cast the literary wizard and his creator as appropriate “folk devils.” This is not surprising since the Christian Right has been involved in demonizing and stimulating panic over other forms of popular culture, including televised media, popular music, and video games. It is also not surprising that the moral panic took hold most strongly in the United States where the Christian Right tends to be the strongest and to have relative power. Although the panic generated over the book series has not led to any significant changes in policy (for example, banning the books from schools or libraries), nor could the panic be considered a full-blown moral panic, the legacy of the “Potter Panic” has significantly been in stimulating contentious debate within the larger Christian community —a debate that has spanned a decade and continues.

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